Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock
The authors of this publication indicate that in the second decade of the 21st century European Union institutions have been aiming at encompassing social housing construction into a common climate and energy policy. It has been shown that the justification of public support for energy investments i...
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Інститут економіки промисловості НАН України
2015
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irk-123456789-1093142016-11-25T03:02:21Z Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock Lis, P. Mazurkiewicz, J. International and Regional Economics The authors of this publication indicate that in the second decade of the 21st century European Union institutions have been aiming at encompassing social housing construction into a common climate and energy policy. It has been shown that the justification of public support for energy investments in the social housing stock is an attempt to counteract climate changes, reduce energy poverty among low-income households as well as to promote local workplaces and economic development in a given area. The cohesion policy of the European Union may actively contribute to strengthening its dynamics and ensure a leverage effect which in turn will lead to the use of other, additional sources of finance. In accordance with the guidelines of the European Commission, the housing stock has been qualified to be subject to support from structural funds in the new financial perspective until 2020, especially in terms of thermomodernisation and promotion of renewable sources of energy, integrated actions aiming at developing urban areas and combating exclusion by providing access to dwellings to marginalised communities and offering high quality, affordable social services. Автори цієї публікації вказують, що в другому десятилітті XXI століття інститути ЄС націлені на енергетичну політику в побуті і її вплив на загальний клімат. Показана виправданість громадської підтримки інвестицій в економію енергії в побуті як спроба нейтралізувати зміни клімату, скоротити бідність серед сімей з низьким рівнем доходу і, щоб просувати місцеві робочі місця і економічний розвиток в цій області. Єдина політика Євросоюзу активно сприяє зміцненню його динаміки і гарантує ефект важеля, який у свою чергу призводитиме до використання інших, додаткових джерел фінансування. Відповідно до директив Єврокомісії, житлова сфера була кваліфікована, як така що підлягає підтримці від структурних фондів в новій фінансовій перспективі до 2020 р., особливо в термінах термомодернізації і просування поновлюваних джерел енергії. Але він доки не об'єднав дії, що націлюють розвиток міст на боротьбу за економію енергоресурсів, забезпечення доступу до житла маргіналізованим суспільствам і пропозицію соціальних послуг високої якості. Авторы этой публикации указывают, что во втором десятилетии XXI столетия институты ЕС нацелены на энергетическую политику в быту и ее влияние на общий климат. Показана оправданность общественной поддержки инвестиций в экономию энергии в быту как попытка нейтрализовать изменения климата, сократить бедность среди семей с низким уровнем дохода и, чтобы продвигать местные рабочие места и экономическое развитие в данной области. Единая политика Евросоюза активно содействует укреплению его динамики и гарантирует эффект рычага, который будет в свою очередь приводить к использованию других, дополнительных источников финансирования. В соответствии с директивами Еврокомиссии, жилищная сфера была квалифицирована, как подлежащая поддержке от структурных фондов в новой финансовой перспективе до 2020 г., особенно в терминах термомодернизации и продвижения возобновляемых источников энергии. Но он пока не объединил действия, нацеливающие развитие городов на борьбу за экономию энергоресурсов, обеспечение доступа к жилью маргинализированным обществам и предложение социальных услуг высокого качества. 2015 Article Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock / P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz // Економічний вісник Донбасу. — 2015. — № 4 (42). — С. 24-32. — Бібліогр.: 28 назв. — англ. 1817-3772 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/109314 332.8:364.22:621.31 en Економічний вісник Донбасу Інститут економіки промисловості НАН України |
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International and Regional Economics International and Regional Economics |
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International and Regional Economics International and Regional Economics Lis, P. Mazurkiewicz, J. Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock Економічний вісник Донбасу |
| description |
The authors of this publication indicate that in the second decade of the 21st century European Union institutions have been aiming at encompassing social housing construction into a common climate and energy policy. It has been shown that the justification of public support for energy investments in the social housing stock is an attempt to counteract climate changes, reduce energy poverty among low-income households as well as to promote local workplaces and economic development in a given area. The cohesion policy of the European Union may actively contribute to strengthening its dynamics and ensure a leverage effect which in turn will lead to the use of other, additional sources of finance. In accordance with the guidelines of the European Commission, the housing stock has been qualified to be subject to support from structural funds in the new financial perspective until 2020, especially in terms of thermomodernisation and promotion of renewable sources of energy, integrated actions aiming at developing urban areas and combating exclusion by providing access to dwellings to marginalised communities and offering high quality, affordable social services. |
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Lis, P. Mazurkiewicz, J. |
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Lis, P. Mazurkiewicz, J. |
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Lis, P. |
| title |
Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock |
| title_short |
Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock |
| title_full |
Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock |
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Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock |
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Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock |
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combating energy poverty in the social housing stock |
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Інститут економіки промисловості НАН України |
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2015 |
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International and Regional Economics |
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http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/109314 |
| citation_txt |
Combating Energy Poverty in the Social Housing Stock / P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz // Економічний вісник Донбасу. — 2015. — № 4 (42). — С. 24-32. — Бібліогр.: 28 назв. — англ. |
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P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
24
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
UDC 332.8:364.22:621.31
P. Lis,
PhD (Economics),
J. Mazurkiewicz,
PhD (Economics),
Poznań University of Economics, Poland
COMBATING ENERGY POVERTY IN THE SOCIAL HOUSING STOCK
1. Introduction
A full-scale development strategy of the European
Union, known as “Europe 2020”, has become a contem-
porary framework of the Polish economic policy, in-
cluding the energy and housing policy. The bases for
this policy are: 1) investments in education, scientific
research and innovations, 2) balanced development con-
ducted in accordance with the low-carbon economy, as
well as 3) social integration (the so-called social inclu-
sion), with a particular emphasis put on reducing pov-
erty and creating new workplaces.
The social housing stock is an important instru-
ment in the state’s fight against poverty and social ex-
clusion. The investments realised in the social housing
construction support the development and attractiveness
of certain urban areas or entire cities. Social housing
construction serves as a stabiliser of tensions which ap-
pear on local housing markets and it depreciates (sof-
tens) the course of housing cycles [Cf. Lis 2008, 2012].
Improving living standards is, at the same time, an im-
portant element of achieving the aims of the energy pol-
icy in terms of increasing energy efficiency and reduc-
ing the level of the emissivity of the economy. The po-
tential of housing construction as regards improving en-
ergy efficiency has been estimated to be 30 MtCO2 until
2030, which makes up 13% of the total potential of re-
ducing the emission of greenhouse gases in the economy
of Poland [McKinsey 2010].
In the face of the growing prices of energy, heat
and gas in relation to the households’ income and low
energy efficiency of residential (and public) buildings,
there occurs an issue of energy poverty. A fundamental
definition of energy poverty indicates that it is a phe-
nomenon which consists in experiencing hardships with
maintaining adequate heating in residential buildings
[Li et al. 2014]. With the course of time, this phenome-
non began to be considered from a more comprehensive
viewpoint, encompassing the necessity to provide
households with an access to electric and gas energy
used for realising essential needs [IEA 2010] as well as
to conduct proper modernisation of dwellings, purchase
heating systems and devices [Cf. Stępniak, To-
maszewska 2014, pp. 6-7]. It shall be highlighted that
energy poverty in well-developed countries is consid-
ered from the viewpoint of economic (and not physical)
access to energy. The energy poverty-stricken house-
holds are considered to be those in which the amount of
expenditures on energy and fuel exceed 10% of income
[Boardman 2012].
The authors have put forward a thesis that the so-
cial housing stock and social housing construction could
serve as a crucial instrument in the state’s fight against
energy poverty, simultaneously realising the essential
aims of the social housing policy and being in harmony
with the EU law, especially in terms of providing ser-
vices in general economic interest.
The main aim of this work is to assess the possi-
bilities (conditions) for including social housing con-
struction in the fight against energy poverty among low-
income households or other sensitive groups. In order to
fulfil this aim, the following research tasks have been
assumed. To begin with, the first part of the work iden-
tifies the right to housing as the basis for conducting an
active housing policy. Next, the authors identify the
aims, instruments and models of the social housing pol-
icy. In this context, the main housing problems in the
European Union member states are identified, with par-
ticular attention paid to energy poverty. Finally, the au-
thors suggest a range of instruments which can be used
for combating energy poverty within the social housing
policy.
The authors use the statistical data of the Eurostat
and the International Energy Agency. Furthermore, spe-
cialist studies concerning the issues of social housing
construction and energy poverty are used in this work.
However, the main inspiration for writing this work are
two opinions of the European Economic and Social
Committee: 1) “In the case of the issues with defining
social housing as a service of general economic interest”
and “For coordinated European measures to prevent
and combat energy poverty” [EKES 2013a, 2013b].
2. The right to housing as the basis for conduct-
ing an active housing policy
The right to housing, being the basis for conducting
the housing policy, has been recognised in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which says that “every-
one has the right to a standard of living adequate for the
health and well-being of himself and of his family, in-
cluding food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services”. Furthermore, the right to
housing may also be found in the European Social Char-
ter: “With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of
the right to housing, the Parties undertake to take
measures designed: to promote access to housing of an
adequate standard; to prevent and reduce homelessness
with a view to its gradual elimination; to make the price
of housing accessible to those without adequate re-
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
25
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
sources”. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Eu-
ropean Union also claims as follows: “In order to com-
bat social exclusion and poverty, the Union recognises
and respects the right to social and housing assistance so
as to ensure a decent existence for all those who lack
sufficient resources, in accordance with the rules laid
down by Community law and national laws and prac-
tices”. Finally, the right to housing has been laid down
in the constitution of a number of member states or is
subject to special legal acts which aim at its effective
implementation.
The right to housing is fulfilled in the majority of
member states through the services provided in general
economic interest. According to Article 36 of the Char-
ter of Fundamental Rights, which says that “the Union
recognises and respects access to services of general
economic interest as provided for in national laws and
practices, in accordance with the Treaty establishing the
European Community, in order to promote the social
and territorial cohesion of the Union”. Under Article
106 (2) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European
Union, and under the assumption that common access to
housing is considered as a service provided in general
economic interest, undertakings obliged to manage the
services provided in general economic interest are sub-
ject to the norms contained in the Treaties, including the
rules on competition and the principles concerning the
ban on and control of the state’s support, within the lim-
its in which their application does not constitute a legal
or actual obstacle to the performance of particular tasks
given to them by the national, regional or local authori-
ties.
The decision of the European Commission con-
cerning the services provided in general economic inter-
est of 20 December 2011 reduces the access to subsi-
dised social dwellings for the disadvantaged and for less
privileged social groups which are unable to find hous-
ing at market conditions due to their solvency con-
straints. In accordance with Protocol no. 26 of the Treaty
of Lisbon, the main responsibility for provision, finance
and organisation of services of general economic inter-
est shall be vested in the member states and their na-
tional, regional and local authorities which have a vast
scope of discretional capacities in these areas and a dem-
ocratic freedom of choice [EKES 2013, p. 53].
In sum, the right to housing encompasses both the
issues of the availability, capacity to purchase or rent
dwellings and maintain them, as well as the standard of
the housing stock. Energy poverty is closely connected
with the right to housing in a sense that it determines the
standard of the stock as well as the households’ capacity
to maintain the stock. An active role of the state in the
European Union member states, supporting the right to
housing, has become greatly limited and controlled
more closely by the European Commission. On the other
hand, the state’s instruments aiming at reducing energy
poverty through the social housing stock or social hous-
ing construction are not subject to such restrictions from
the European Commission.
3. Social housing policy goals
The housing policy is one of the sector policies
conducted both by the central authorities as well as the
local authorities, engaging public entities, social organ-
isations, private entities, in order to achieve the main,
long-term goals which are: a) creating favourable con-
ditions for purchasing and renting the housing stock by
all citizens as well as creating the possibilities to main-
tain this stock, b) ensuring the availability of housing
and c) guaranteeing an adequate housing standard [Lis
2008]. The detailed specification of the main housing
policy goals should refer to the citizens’ housing needs
and the demand for housing reported at a given time and
place, and the manner of realising the “right to housing
(reside)” will influence the social model functioning in
a given country [Lis 2005]. The principle of determining
a mutual system of rights and obligations of households,
enterprises and the state in terms of ensuring fundamen-
tal housing conditions should be based on the “right to
reside”. This right does not, however, give citizens con-
sent to take a demanding attitude towards the state in
order to fulfil their housing needs, not supported by their
individual effort to fulfil these needs. The right to reside
also encompasses such components as: a right to choose
the form of housing ownership, a right to reside in stand-
ards which are not beneath human dignity, a right to
change the place of residence [Andrzejewski 1987]. The
interpretation and realisation of the right to reside is be-
coming one of the main factors delineating the shape
(model) of the housing policy.
The realisation of the above goals of the state’s pol-
icy requires special instruments used with reference to
persons with a low economic status or with reference to
specific, sensitive social groups such as: the disabled,
the unemployed who have not been working for a long
time, the elderly who are left to themselves, families
with many children, single parents, emigrants and refu-
gees, ethnic minorities, persons facing eviction, persons
who live in dangerous areas, as well as young married
couples or students. It shall be highlighted, however,
that the criteria which enable identification of these sen-
sitive groups are quite diverse in particular European
Union member states; moreover, they tend to change
with time. They include above all the criterion of in-
come, social risk, a number of persons in a household,
age, marital status, health condition, class and race. Spe-
cific instruments applied with respect to persons with a
low economic status or sensitive groups have contrib-
uted to the fact that the so-called social housing policy
has been specified. Besides determining the manners of
allocating and accessing the social housing stock (con-
ditions for entering and leaving – even obligatorily – the
social housing stock), among the tasks of the social
housing policy should be assessing the capacity of
households to rent (or in certain cases to purchase) hous-
ing in the social housing stock and to maintain this hous-
ing, as well as determining the scope of legal protection
for the tenants and owners of the stock [Lis 2008, 2012].
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
26
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
Thus, the social housing policy makes up for an im-
portant area in the fight against energy poverty due to its
focus on low-income households and sensitive groups.
4. Social housing policy models
Taking into consideration the goals and instru-
ments applied, two major models of the social housing
policy may be indicated – a universal model and a selec-
tive model. The latter may be further divided into two
variants: general and residual [See more in Lis 2008,
2013; Ghekiere 2009].
The prevailing aspects of the universal model are
the ideas of solidary payment and reception of benefits
by all citizens, while there exists differentiation con-
cerning the degree of public strains and benefits depend-
ing on the households’ financial possibilities. The capi-
tal-redistribution function of the financial system is a
crucial element of the universal policy. In this approach
the housing policy uses the instruments of regulation
and support in relation to the entire housing market, cre-
ating the so-called vast area of influence [Bengtsson
2001, 2004]. In the universal model the state aims at
providing housing to every citizen, regardless of their
income. As a result, additional demand for social hous-
ing is created, which supplements the housing market.
Significant changes in the conditions of functioning of
the housing market occur in this model, including dwell-
ing prices and rent rates. The replacement value and not
the market value becomes a priority investment crite-
rion. On the other hand, the security of renting dwellings
increases, which cannot be guaranteed by the private
sector. The universal model has been predominant in
Denmark and the Netherlands, and it has occurred also
in Sweden [EKES 2013a, pp. 54-56] 1.
In Denmark, the universal conception is deeply
rooted in the model of a welfare state. The notion of dis-
advantaged, weak and excluded groups or persons is not
1 Sweden opted out from providing a clear specification of the service provided in general economic interest with respect
to social housing.
2 The Treaty of Amsterdam, which was signed on 2 October 1997 and came into force on 1 May 1999, introduced changes
and new numeration of the articles contained in the Treaty on the European Community and the Treaty on the European Union.
It also contains attached, consolidated versions of the Treaty on the European Union and the Treaty establishing the European
Community. In accordance with Article 86 (2), “Undertakings entrusted with the operation of services of general economic
interest or having the character of a revenue-producing monopoly shall be subject to the rules contained in this Treaty, in
particular to the rules on competition, insofar as the application of such rules does not obstruct the performance, in law or in
fact, of the particular tasks assigned to them. The development of trade must not be affected to such an extent as would be
contrary to the interests of the Community.”
3 Under Article 5 of Commission Decision of 28 November 2005 on the application of Article 86(2) of the EC Treaty
to State aid in the form of public service compensation granted to certain undertakings entrusted with the operation of
services of general economic interest (notified under document number C(2005) 2673) “The amount of compensation shall
not exceed what is necessary to cover the costs incurred in discharging the public service obligations, taking into account the
relevant receipts and a reasonable profit on any own capital necessary for discharging those obligations. The compensation
must be actually used for the operation of the service of general economic interest concerned, without prejudice to the under-
taking’s ability to enjoy a reasonable profit.”
4 The Member States conduct regular inspections or commission such inspections in the sector of social housing in order
to ensure that a given undertaking does not take compensation exceeding the amount specified under Article 5. Each compen-
sation surplus up to 20% of the annual compensation may be transferred to the following accounting period, on condition that a
given undertaking runs its activities solely within the scope of services provided in general economic interest. The results of the
assessment of the influence are submitted to the European Parliament, European Committee of the Regions, European Economic
and Social Committee and the member. Source: Commission Decision of 28 November 2005 on the application of Article
86(2) of the EC Treaty.
limited by a given level of income. The aim is to ensure
affordable and available dwellings to persons who need
them. A traditional real estate market is enriched thanks
to lifting legal social obligations and ensuring social
equality and diversification in terms of ethnic origin,
sex, income, age, disability or mental and physical
needs. The pricing policy is regulated and based on ac-
tual costs, which eliminates the possibility of excessive
compensation [EKES 2013a, p. 56].
The European Commission is against the function-
ing of the universal model in the housing sphere due to
the lack of concentration on a specific social demand.
According to the European Commission, it does not re-
flect the EU definition of a service provided in general
economic interest in connection with housing. The ob-
jects at issue are the principles of financing private en-
terprises operating within social housing construction.
The basis for the objection against the universal model
is the European Commission Decision of 2005 on the
application of Article 86(2) of the EC Treaty2 to State
aid in the form of public service compensation granted
to certain undertakings entrusted with the operation of
services of general economic interest3. A necessity to
control the compensation granted to private entrepre-
neurs was introduced with reference to social housing.
Furthermore, the member states were obliged to prepare
detailed reports within a three-year-time period which
would become the basis for the assessment by the Euro-
pean Commission4. The Directorate-General for Com-
petition launched explanatory procedures concerning
the conformity of the state’s support given in the Nether-
lands and Sweden with the laws and principles of the
uniform market. The case of the Netherlands concerned
the definition of social construction, which – according
to the EU institution – encompassed an excessive num-
ber of persons, some of whom did not belong to sensi-
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
27
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
tive groups. It was postulated that the Dutch social con-
struction organisations should sell the housing stock in
order to suit EU regulations. The case of Sweden re-
garded the conformity with the law of the support given
by the local authorities to the entities which provided
services within the scope of social housing in which the
authorities acted as shareholders [Cecodhas 2007].
In the general variant of the selective model the
beneficiaries of the state’s support in the housing sphere
are the persons who have found themselves in a difficult
economic situation or those who have been excluded
(alike the residual model discussed further in this work),
as well as the persons with a meagre income and diffi-
cult access to adequate housing due to their uncertain
income. The access to housing is most frequently condi-
tioned by the level of income and the composition of the
household. Rents are regulated and remain affordable.
This conception has in most cases a limited influence on
the general level of supply of dwellings and on their
prices, and it does not cause any conflicts with the pri-
vate real estate market, since the profits remain very lim-
ited. This conception encompasses wider categories of
people and complies with the community requirements
with respect to concentrating on social demand. It is ap-
plied in the following countries: Germany, Austria, Bel-
gium, Spain (access to ownership), France, Finland, It-
aly, Luxemburg, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slove-
nia [Cf. EESK 2013, pp. 54-56].
In the residual variant of the selective model the
social housing subsidised by the public authorities is re-
served to the persons in a difficult economic situation or
those who have been excluded, and clearly defined as
such. In the case of such housing, there are very rigorous
principles of allocation used. The rent is almost entirely
paid through the system of social assistance. This con-
ception does not create any competition to the private
real estate sector and is fully compatible with the EU
definition of a service provided in general economic in-
terest with respect to social housing, formulated in the
European Commission Decision of 20 December 2011
renewing the exemption from the prior notification ob-
ligation to report the compensation for the costs of pub-
lic services as regards making social housing available
to the “disadvantaged or those who are in a worse social
situation, without adequate means, in order to obtain
housing on market principles”. This category includes:
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania,
Latvia, Malta, Portugal, Romania, the United Kingdom,
Slovenia and – partly – Spain (social rental sector) [Cf.
EKES 2013, pp. 54-56].
In brief, there are two models of social housing pol-
icy in the European Union member states – the universal
1 The overpopulation ratio means a failure to meet whichever of the following criteria: one room per household, one room
per every adult, one room per two children of the same sex aged 12-17, one room per every child between 12 and 17 – different
sexes, one room per a couple of children aged below 12 years old.
2 Housing expenditures refer to monthly costs of housing maintenance. They include payments for utility bills, including
the cost of water and sewage, electricity, gas and heating, mortgage interest, insurance, repair and renovation fund, fees for the
real estate administration, rent – in the case of lessees, real estate taxes.
model and the selective model. The activities of the Eu-
ropean Commission aim at gradual elimination of the
universal model in favour of the selective model. As a
result, the fight against energy poverty in the social
housing stock will concentrate either on sensitive groups
or on households with low income or no income at all.
5. The issue of Energy poverty in the back-
ground of other housing problems
All member states except for Greece have their
own social housing stock, yet the size of the stock varies
to a large extent both among the countries (e.g. the coun-
tries of the “old” and “new” European Union, i.e. EU-
15 and EU-13), and inside these countries (i.e. urban
versus rural areas, city centres versus outskirts). Accord-
ing to the Eurostat data at the end of 2013, an average of
11% of the Europeans lived in the housing stock for rent,
with non-market rent. In Poland, this number amounted
to 12%, which is slightly higher than the average in the
Community.
The main aim in the area of housing for the major-
ity of public authorities of the EU member states is to
provide the inhabitants with common access to decent
(with a minimum standard), affordable housing and the
activities for the rationalisation of the costs housing
maintenance. Despite varied activities of the member
states, 5.2% of Europeans (according to the Eurostat
data at the end of 2013) faced a threat of serious housing
deprivation, i.e. they lived in overpopulated dwellings1
with at least one of the following problems: a lack of
toilet or bathroom, leaky roof or lack of adequate light-
ing. According to the Eurostat data, 17.4% of Europeans
lived in overpopulated dwellings, whereas 11% of
households spent at least 40% of their equivalent dispos-
able income on housing needs. Housing deprivation,
including the issue of overpopulated dwellings in-
habited by persons facing poverty, constitutes the
main challenge for the social housing policy. High
housing deprivation, including a high overpopulation ra-
tio, reduces young people’s chances to get suitable edu-
cation, which consequently may be a limitation in find-
ing proper employment.
Participation of housing expenditures2 in the
households’ disposable income amounted to an average
of 22% in the European Union member states. On the
other hand, the proportion of persons whose housing ex-
penditures exceeded 40% of the equivalent disposable
income averaged 11%. In Poland the results in this area
ran at the level of the EU average (22.7% and 10.3%
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
28
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
Fig. 1. Serious housing deprivation in European Union member states in 2013
Source: based on the European research on living conditions, EU-SILC, Eurostat [ilc_mdho06a].
Fig. 2. Housing expenditures in the European Union member states in 2013
Source: based on the European research on living conditions, EU-SILC, Eurostat, EU-SILC, Eurostat, [ilc_mded01,
ilc_lvho07a].
respectively). It shall be mentioned at this point that one-
third of the inhabitants of Greece, almost one-fifth of the
Dutch citizens and one-sixth of the inhabitants of Ger-
many, Romania and the Netherlands spent over 40% of
their equivalent disposable income.In the light of the
above housing problems, the EU member states may be
divided into a few groups characterised by the scale of
occurrence of serious housing deprivations and high
costs of housing maintenance (Cf. fig. 3). Two housing
issues occur simultaneously in such countries as: Roma-
nia, Hungary, Latvia, Poland and Greece, i.e. in the
countries with relatively (compared to the EU-28 aver-
age) lower economic development, especially in the
countries which have undergone the political and eco-
nomic transformation. Excessive housing expenditures,
with a relatively good condition of the housing stock ap-
pear in particular in Denmark, Germany and the Nether-
lands, thus in the countries with a high level of economic
development.
In the light of the above presented housing prob-
lems, there occurs an additional phenomenon of en-
ergy poverty. Among the main, direct factors shaping
this phenomenon, there are: the amount of energy con-
sumption by households and the types of energy used,
the level of energy efficiency of households (in relation
to energy efficiency of occupied buildings, energy con-
sumption of the appliances used as well as consumers’
behaviour), the level of the household’s income and the
level of energy prices. The factors which influence the
level of energy poverty indirectly include among all: 1)
the size and structure of a household, which shape spe-
cific energy needs, 2) the legal title to the real estate,
conditioning the scope of decisions taken in order to im-
prove energy efficiency and 3) the type of the heating
system and possibilities to substitute the sources of en-
ergy in order to lower the costs of fuel.
Nowadays, both in social sciences and in economic
practice, there is no complex and universal index allow-
ing for monitoring the level of energy poverty. The most
frequently used evaluation, due to the lack of other
measures, is an answer to the question concerning the
occurrence of hardships with maintaining an adequate
level of heating in the place of residence, asked to
households under the EU-SILC research survey con-
ducted by the Eurostat. It seems, however, that for the
purpose of making international comparisons, these
0
5
10
15
20
25
RO HU LV BG PL LT HR IT GR SI EE PT
EU
28 SK CZ AT DK U
K FR ES LU DE SE IE CY M
T BE N
L FI
0
11
22
33
44
GR DK N
L
DE RO HU CZ BG PL SE
EU
28 LV BE U
K SK HR ES LT AT EE PT FI FR IT SI IE LU CY M
T
Participation of housing expenditures in households’ disposable income in % in 2013
Percentage of persons whose housing expenditures exceeded 40% of the equivalent disposable income in 2013
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
29
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
estimates should be complemented at least with the data
reflecting the differences in energy-related strains (both
electricity and heating) on the households’ budgets.
Consequently, energy poverty is reflected in the follow-
ing part of this work as an index which contains infor-
mation concerning: 1) hardships with maintaining ade-
quate temperature in a dwelling, 2) the occurrence of de-
lays in housing payments, 3) the participation of the
costs of housing maintenance in households’ budgets
[Cf. Healy 2004, Bouzarovski 2011].
GR
DK
NL
DE
RO
HU
CZ
BG
PL
SE
EU28
LV
BE
UK
SK
HR
ES
LT
AT
EEPT
FI
FR
IT
SI
IELUCYMT
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 408,4
Odsetek osób, których wydatki mieszkaniowe
przekraczały 40 % ekwiwalentnego dochodu do dyspozycji w 2013 r.
-2
0
2
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
4
W
sk
aź
ni
k
po
w
aż
ne
j d
ep
ry
w
ac
ji
m
ie
sz
ka
ni
ow
ej
w
%
d
o
ca
łe
j p
op
ul
ac
ji
GR
DK
NL
DE
RO
HU
CZ
BG
PL
SE
EU28
LV
BE
UK
SK
HR
ES
LT
AT
EEPT
FI
FR
IT
SI
IELUCYMT
Fig. 3. Relation between excessive expenditures and serious housing deprivation
in the EU member states in 2013
Explanations: two bold lines mean a median of assumed indexes for the EU-28 member states.
Source: based on the European research on living conditions, EU-SILC, Eurostat.
Based on the analysis conducted by the authors, it
may be concluded that among the EU member states that
highest level of energy poverty is found in the econo-
mies of Greece and Bulgaria (Cf. fig. 4). The values of
all the features under analysis place these economies in
the forefront of the EU. The problem with maintaining
a comfortable temperature in dwellings in Bulgaria and
Greece was present in 45% and 30% of the population
of these countries respectively. Interestingly, the major-
ity of countries with energy poverty above the average
are the countries of southern Europe, situated on the Bal-
kans and in the Mediterranean Sea basin as well as the
countries of central and eastern Europe. This phenome-
non may be explained by the differences in the degree
of energy efficiency of residential buildings (including
adequate thermal insulation), the level of wealth and
ecological awareness of the society (Cf. fig. 5). This in-
terrelation makes us maintain the conclusion that in
spite of aiming the energy policy at the growth in the
efficiency of energy consumption, alongside a growing
level of prosperity, there occurs a quantitative increase
in the consumption of energy by households.
For the majority of the EU member states, a pre-
vailing carrier of energy in households in 2013 was nat-
ural gas, which covered 37.4% of the entire consump-
tion of energy in households in the EU-28 group.
The above-presented set of conditions leads to a
conclusion that although the households which are poor
in economic categories are also stricken by energy pov-
erty, the two categories of poverty may not necessarily
appear simultaneously. In fact, there might occur a situ-
ation in which a household whose income exceeds the
poverty income criterion is located in a building with
low energy efficiency or uses devices with high energy
consumption. As a result, the level of energy-related ex-
penditures connected with housing maintenance in-
creases above the average values. Another example may
be a household which earns an average income, residing
in an energy efficient building in which consumers be-
haviours lead to improper (excessive) consumption of
energy.
The identification of the main reasons for the oc-
currence of energy poverty is essential to create solu-
tions which would diminish the scale and scope of the
phenomenon. In the case of households which are poor
in the categories of income and energy, reducing eco-
nomic poverty is a necessary condition in order to de-
crease energy poverty. If, however, energy poverty
strikes households with an average income, yet belong-
ing to sensitive groups, the role, character, scope and ef-
ficiency of the state’s intervention changes.
In
de
x
of
s
er
io
us
h
ou
si
ng
d
ep
ra
va
ti
on
in
%
o
f
th
e
to
ta
l p
op
ul
at
io
n
Percentage of persons whose housing expenditures ex-
ceeded 40% of the equivalent disposable income in 2013
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
30
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
Fig. 4. Level of energy poverty in the EU member states in 2013
Source: based on the European research on living conditions, EU-SILC, Eurostat, [ilc_lvho07a, ilc_mdes07,
ilc_mdes01, ilc_mdho01].
Fig. 5. Final energy consumption in households in the EU member states in 2013 per capita
Source: based on the Eurostat data, [t2020_rk200].
Fig. 6. Structure of the sources of energy used in households in EU member states
Source: based on the Eurostat data, [t2020_rk210].
6. Suggestions for combating energy poverty
within the social housing policy
Taking into consideration the factors which shape
energy poverty, three directions of actions aiming at di-
minishing the scope of this phenomenon may be deter-
mined [Cf. Węglarz, Kubalski, Owczarek 2014]. The
first group of solutions encompasses technical actions,
directed primarily at modernising and improving energy
efficiency. These solutions include among all thermo-
modernisation of residential buildings, modernisation of
heating installations and systems, replacement of energy
consuming devices. The second group of solutions is
composed of economic instruments, among which there
are instruments of direct support of income, instruments
supporting investments in energy efficient solutions and
instruments of securing claims. The third group is made
up of the solutions which aim at educating and shaping
consumer models, among all improving the knowledge
in the area of an efficient use of energy or abilities to
choose, modernisation and attendance of energy effi-
cient devices. An important element in this group of so-
lutions is monitoring the level of energy poverty.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
G
R
BG RO CY LV HU LT CR PT IT M
T PL IR
EU
-2
8 SL U
K ES DK DE CZ N
L EE BE SK FR AT FI SI LU
High costs of housing maintenance
Delays in payments for utility bills
Inability to maintain adequate temperature
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
FI LU BE AT DK SI DE EE FR N
L
U
K LV IE CZ
EU
-2
8 IT SL PL LT HU CR SK RO CY G
R ES BG PT M
T
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
M
T SI ES CY BG PT G
R FI FR CR IR U
K
EU
-2
8 SL AT DK CZ N
L SK DE BE HU EE IT LU LT RO LV PL
Electricity Gas Heating Renewable energy sources Oil Fossil fuels
P. Lis, J. Mazurkiewicz
31
Економічний вісник Донбасу № 4(42), 2015
Taking into account the shape of the social housing
stock and social housing construction, it may be high-
lighted that the instruments applied will be more selec-
tive than universal in their character. They will be di-
rected at low-income households or sensitive groups. It
serves more as an advantage of the solutions rather than
a drawback. It has been postulated that in the case of the
instruments directed at low-income or no-income
households, the state’s activity should be channelled to
institutional support: gminas, non-profit organisations
or investors participating in social undertakings. An im-
portant group of instruments will include the activities
which are more technical in their character. As regards
the group of sensitive households, with an average in-
come, the state’s instruments may be targeted directly at
these households, yet based on the principle of their par-
ticipation (also financial) in improving energy effi-
ciency and reducing energy poverty. An important role
in this target group may be played by the economic in-
struments.
7. Summary
The social housing stock and social housing con-
struction may constitute one of the areas for combating
energy poverty in the European Union member states.
Including the activities within this scope into the hous-
ing sphere requires taking into consideration the condi-
tions for conducting the social housing policy. One has
to bear in mind, however, that the housing problems in
the countries of the Community have a twofold charac-
ter: first, there is serious housing deprivation, and sec-
ond, there are excessive costs of housing maintenance.
These issues concern to a large extent the countries
which have undergone economic and political transfor-
mations, and are becoming more and more troublesome
for the countries of the so-called western Europe, espe-
cially in the area of housing expenditures. Supporting
the housing sphere with structural funds from the Euro-
pean Union in the years 2014 – 2020 thus seems fully
justified, especially with respect to thermomodernisa-
tion and promoting renewable sources of energy and in-
tegrated activities concerning the fight against energy
poverty.
The instruments of the state’s policy directed at
combating energy poverty within the social housing
stock and housing construction will be targeted at
households with low income or no income at all as well
as sensitive groups with an average income. As regards
the instruments directed at the former group of house-
holds, the priority is given to technical activities. In the
case of the latter group, of key importance here are the
economic instruments whose role is to support the real-
isation of energy investments together with financial re-
sources coming from this group of households.
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Лис П., Maзуркевич І. Посилення енерге-
тичної складової в побутовій сфері
Автори цієї публікації вказують, що в другому
десятилітті XXI століття інститути ЄС націлені на
енергетичну політику в побуті і її вплив на загаль-
ний клімат. Показана виправданість громадської
підтримки інвестицій в економію енергії в побуті як
спроба нейтралізувати зміни клімату, скоротити
бідність серед сімей з низьким рівнем доходу і, щоб
просувати місцеві робочі місця і економічний розви-
ток в цій області. Єдина політика Євросоюзу актив-
но сприяє зміцненню його динаміки і гарантує ефект
важеля, який у свою чергу призводитиме до викори-
стання інших, додаткових джерел фінансування.
Відповідно до директив Єврокомісії, житлова сфера
була кваліфікована, як така що підлягає підтримці
від структурних фондів в новій фінансовій перспек-
тиві до 2020 р., особливо в термінах термомодерні-
зації і просування поновлюваних джерел енергії.
Але він доки не об'єднав дії, що націлюють розвиток
міст на боротьбу за економію енергоресурсів, забез-
печення доступу до житла маргіналізованим суспі-
льствам і пропозицію соціальних послуг високої
якості.
Ключові слова: соціальне житлове будівництво,
бідність, енергія, клімат.
Лис П., Maзуркевич И. Усиление энергети-
ческой составляющей в бытовой сфере
Авторы этой публикации указывают, что во
втором десятилетии XXI столетия институты ЕС
нацелены на энергетическую политику в быту и ее
влияние на общий климат. Показана оправданность
общественной поддержки инвестиций в экономию
энергии в быту как попытка нейтрализовать измене-
ния климата, сократить бедность среди семей с низ-
ким уровнем дохода и, чтобы продвигать местные
рабочие места и экономическое развитие в данной
области. Единая политика Евросоюза активно со-
действует укреплению его динамики и гарантирует
эффект рычага, который будет в свою очередь при-
водить к использованию других, дополнительных
источников финансирования. В соответствии с ди-
рективами Еврокомиссии, жилищная сфера была
квалифицирована, как подлежащая поддержке от
структурных фондов в новой финансовой перспек-
тиве до 2020 г., особенно в терминах термомодерни-
зации и продвижения возобновляемых источников
энергии. Но он пока не объединил действия, нацели-
вающие развитие городов на борьбу за экономию
энергоресурсов, обеспечение доступа к жилью мар-
гинализированным обществам и предложение соци-
альных услуг высокого качества.
Ключевые слова: социальное жилищное строи-
тельство, бедность, энергия, климат.
Lis P., Mazurkiewicz J. Combating Energy Pov-
erty in the Social Housing Stock
The authors of this publication indicate that in the
second decade of the 21st century European Union in-
stitutions have been aiming at encompassing social
housing construction into a common climate and energy
policy. It has been shown that the justification of public
support for energy investments in the social housing
stock is an attempt to counteract climate changes, reduce
energy poverty among low-income households as well
as to promote local workplaces and economic develop-
ment in a given area. The cohesion policy of the Euro-
pean Union may actively contribute to strengthening its
dynamics and ensure a leverage effect which in turn will
lead to the use of other, additional sources of finance. In
accordance with the guidelines of the European Com-
mission, the housing stock has been qualified to be sub-
ject to support from structural funds in the new financial
perspective until 2020, especially in terms of thermo-
modernisation and promotion of renewable sources of
energy, integrated actions aiming at developing urban
areas and combating exclusion by providing access to
dwellings to marginalised communities and offering
high quality, affordable social services.
Keywords: social housing construction, energy
poverty.
Received by the editors: 07.04.2015
and final form 28.12.2015
|