Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy
Aluminium alloy 2219 is a favourite age hardenable alloy considered for fabrication of earth storable and cryogenic propellant tanks of launch vehicles. In the current study, 8.1 mm thick AA2219-T87 aluminium alloy plates are joined using friction stir welding. Friction stir welding produces three d...
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Інститут металофізики ім. Г.В. Курдюмова НАН України
2015
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irk-123456789-1118892017-01-16T03:03:02Z Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy Srinivasa Rao, G. Subba Rao, V.V. Koteswara Rao, S.R. Дефекты кристаллической решётки Aluminium alloy 2219 is a favourite age hardenable alloy considered for fabrication of earth storable and cryogenic propellant tanks of launch vehicles. In the current study, 8.1 mm thick AA2219-T87 aluminium alloy plates are joined using friction stir welding. Friction stir welding produces three different microstructural zones, and these zones exhibit different microstructural characteristics. Therefore, it is expected that the various zones will exhibit different corrosion susceptibility. The corrosion behaviour of the base material and friction stir welded joints is investigated using salt fog test (ASTM B117) at different pH value and spraying times. Optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy are used to observe the corrosion attack at various zones of the weld. As observed, the welds exhibit excellent corrosion resistance in basic and neutral solution than in acidic solution. As found, the corrosion rate decreases with increase in time of exposure at all pH values. As observed, the corrosion rate is predominant in acidic solution for first 24 hrs of spraying time. As found, the corrosion attack is greater in the base material than weld metal at all pH value and spraying times. Within the weld, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is found to be more susceptible to corrosion compared to the weld nugget and thermomechanically affected regions. The results obtained from the transmission electron microscopy confirm that the increased rate of corrosion of HAZ in acidic solution is due to the precipitation of second phase particles (CuAl₂) at the grain boundaries causes depletion of copper near the grain boundaries, making these regions anodic to the grain centre. Алюмінійовий стоп 2219 є найкращим вибором серед дисперсійно-твердних стопів, які розглядаються для виготовлення баків для ракетного палива тривалого зберігання в наземних умовах і баків для кріогенного ракетного палива мобільних пускових установок. У даній роботі платівки алюмінійового стопу АА2219-Т87 товщиною у 8,1 мм були з’єднані способом зварювання тертям з перемішуванням. Зварювання тертям з перемішуванням створює три різних мікроструктурних зони, і ці зони демонструють різні мікроструктурні характеристики. Тому можна очікувати, що різні зони будуть демонструвати різну сприйнятливість до корозії. Корозійні властивості основного металу та зварних швів, одержаних зварюванням тертям з перемішуванням, досліджувалися з використанням випробування в сольовому тумані (ASTM B117) за різних значень pH та часів розпорошення. Оптична мікроскопія та просвітна електронна мікроскопія використовувалися для спостереження корозійного руйнування в різних зонах зварного шва. Було встановлено, що зварні шви демонструють відмінну корозійну стійкість у лужних та нейтральних розчинах, але не в кислих розчинах. Встановлено, що швидкість корозії зменшується з ростом часу витримки при всіх значеннях pH. Швидкість корозії була максимальною в кислому розчині впродовж перших 24 годин тривалости витримки. Корозійне руйнування більше в основному металі, ніж у матеріялі зварного шва за всіх pH і тривалостей розпорошення. Всередині зварного шва зона термічного впливу (ЗТВ) виявилася більш сприйнятливою до корозії порівняно з ядром зварної точки та термомеханічно пошкодженими районами. Результати, одержані за допомогою просвітної електронної мікроскопії, підтвердили, що збільшена швидкість корозії ЗТВ у кислотному розчині обумовлена виділенням частинок другої фази (CuAl₂) біля меж зерен, що призводить до збіднення міді поблизу меж зерен, роблячи ці райони анодними відносно центру зерна. Алюминиевый сплав 2219 является наилучшим выбором среди дисперсионно-твердеющих сплавов, рассматриваемых для изготовления баков для ракетного топлива длительного хранения в наземных условиях и баков для криогенного ракетного топлива мобильных пусковых установок. В данной работе пластины алюминиевого сплава AA2219-T87 толщиной 8,1 мм были соединены путём сварки трением с перемешиванием. Сварка трением с перемешиванием образует три различные микроструктурные зоны, и эти зоны демонстрируют разные микроструктурные характеристики. Поэтому можно ожидать, что разные зоны будут демонстрировать разную восприимчивость к коррозии. Коррозионные свойства основного металла и сварных швов, полученных сваркой трением с перемешиванием, исследовались с использованием испытания в солевом тумане (ASTM B117) при различных значениях pH и времени распыления. Оптическая микроскопия и просвечивающая электронная микроскопия использовались для наблюдения коррозионного разрушения в различных зонах сварного шва. Было установлено, что сварные швы демонстрируют отличную коррозионную стойкость в щелочных и нейтральных растворах, но не в кислых растворах. Установлено, что скорость коррозии уменьшается с увеличением времени выдержки при всех значениях pH. Скорость коррозии была максимальной в кислом растворе в течение первых 24 часов времени выдержки. Коррозионное разрушение больше в основном металле, чем в материале сварного шва при всех pH и временах распыления. Внутри сварного шва зона термического влияния (ЗТВ) оказалась более восприимчивой к коррозии по сравнению с ядром сварной точки и термомеханически повреждёнными районами. Результаты, полученные с помощью просвечивающей электронной микроскопии, подтвердили, что возросшая скорость коррозии ЗТВ в кислотном растворе обусловлена выделением частиц второй фазы (CuAl₂) у границ зёрен, что приводит к обеднению меди вблизи границ зёрен, делая эти районы анодными относительно центра зерна. 2015 Article Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy / G. Srinivasa Rao, V. V. Subba Rao, S. R. Koteswara Rao // Металлофизика и новейшие технологии. — 2015. — Т. 37, № 4. — С. 539-554. — Бібліогр.: 41 назв. — рос. 1024-1809 PACS: 06.60.Vz, 68.37.Lp, 81.20.Vj, 81.40.Pq, 81.65.Kn, 81.65.Rv, 82.45.Bb http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/111889 en Металлофизика и новейшие технологии Інститут металофізики ім. Г.В. Курдюмова НАН України |
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Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
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DSpace DC |
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English |
| topic |
Дефекты кристаллической решётки Дефекты кристаллической решётки |
| spellingShingle |
Дефекты кристаллической решётки Дефекты кристаллической решётки Srinivasa Rao, G. Subba Rao, V.V. Koteswara Rao, S.R. Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy Металлофизика и новейшие технологии |
| description |
Aluminium alloy 2219 is a favourite age hardenable alloy considered for fabrication of earth storable and cryogenic propellant tanks of launch vehicles. In the current study, 8.1 mm thick AA2219-T87 aluminium alloy plates are joined using friction stir welding. Friction stir welding produces three different microstructural zones, and these zones exhibit different microstructural characteristics. Therefore, it is expected that the various zones will exhibit different corrosion susceptibility. The corrosion behaviour of the base material and friction stir welded joints is investigated using salt fog test (ASTM B117) at different pH value and spraying times. Optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy are used to observe the corrosion attack at various zones of the weld. As observed, the welds exhibit excellent corrosion resistance in basic and neutral solution than in acidic solution. As found, the corrosion rate decreases with increase in time of exposure at all pH values. As observed, the corrosion rate is predominant in acidic solution for first 24 hrs of spraying time. As found, the corrosion attack is greater in the base material than weld metal at all pH value and spraying times. Within the weld, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is found to be more susceptible to corrosion compared to the weld nugget and thermomechanically affected regions. The results obtained from the transmission electron microscopy confirm that the increased rate of corrosion of HAZ in acidic solution is due to the precipitation of second phase particles (CuAl₂) at the grain boundaries causes depletion of copper near the grain boundaries, making these regions anodic to the grain centre. |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Srinivasa Rao, G. Subba Rao, V.V. Koteswara Rao, S.R. |
| author_facet |
Srinivasa Rao, G. Subba Rao, V.V. Koteswara Rao, S.R. |
| author_sort |
Srinivasa Rao, G. |
| title |
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy |
| title_short |
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy |
| title_full |
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy |
| title_fullStr |
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy |
| title_sort |
microstructure and salt fog corrosion behaviour of aa2219 friction stir welded aluminium alloy |
| publisher |
Інститут металофізики ім. Г.В. Курдюмова НАН України |
| publishDate |
2015 |
| topic_facet |
Дефекты кристаллической решётки |
| url |
http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/111889 |
| citation_txt |
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219 Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy / G. Srinivasa Rao, V. V. Subba Rao, S. R. Koteswara Rao // Металлофизика и новейшие технологии. — 2015. — Т. 37, № 4. — С. 539-554. — Бібліогр.: 41 назв. — рос. |
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Металлофизика и новейшие технологии |
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539
PACS numbers:06.60.Vz, 68.37.Lp,81.20.Vj,81.40.Pq,81.65.Kn,81.65.Rv, 82.45.Bb
Microstructure and Salt Fog Corrosion Behaviour of AA2219
Friction Stir Welded Aluminium Alloy
G. Srinivasa Rao, V. V. Subba Rao*, and S. R. Koteswara Rao**
Department of Mechanical Engineering, ASIST,
Paritala, India
*Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUK,
Kakinada, India
**Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College,
Chennai, India
Aluminium alloy 2219 is a favourite age hardenable alloy considered for fab-
rication of earth storable and cryogenic propellant tanks of launch vehicles.
In the current study, 8.1 mm thick AA2219-T87 aluminium alloy plates are
joined using friction stir welding. Friction stir welding produces three dif-
ferent microstructural zones, and these zones exhibit different microstruc-
tural characteristics. Therefore, it is expected that the various zones will ex-
hibit different corrosion susceptibility. The corrosion behaviour of the base
material and friction stir welded joints is investigated using salt fog test
(ASTM B117) at different pH value and spraying times. Optical microscopy
and transmission electron microscopy are used to observe the corrosion at-
tack at various zones of the weld. As observed, the welds exhibit excellent
corrosion resistance in basic and neutral solution than in acidic solution. As
found, the corrosion rate decreases with increase in time of exposure at all pH
values. As observed, the corrosion rate is predominant in acidic solution for
first 24 hrs of spraying time. As found, the corrosion attack is greater in the
base material than weld metal at all pH value and spraying times. Within the
weld, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is found to be more susceptible to corro-
sion compared to the weld nugget and thermomechanically affected regions.
The results obtained from the transmission electron microscopy confirm that
the increased rate of corrosion of HAZ in acidic solution is due to the precipi-
tation of second phase particles (CuAl2) at the grain boundaries causes deple-
tion of copper near the grain boundaries, making these regions anodic to the
grain centre.
Алюмінійовий стоп 2219 є найкращим вибором серед дисперсійно-
твердних стопів, які розглядаються для виготовлення баків для ракетного
палива тривалого зберігання в наземних умовах і баків для кріогенного
ракетного палива мобільних пускових установок. У даній роботі платівки
Металлофиз. новейшие технол. / Metallofiz. Noveishie Tekhnol.
2015, т. 37, № 4, сс. 539—554
Оттиски доступны непосредственно от издателя
Фотокопирование разрешено только
в соответствии с лицензией
2015 ИМФ (Институт металлофизики
им. Г. В. Курдюмова НАН Украины)
Напечатано в Украине.
540 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
алюмінійового стопу АА2219-Т87 товщиною у 8,1 мм були з’єднані спосо-
бом зварювання тертям з перемішуванням. Зварювання тертям з перемі-
шуванням створює три різних мікроструктурних зони, і ці зони демон-
струють різні мікроструктурні характеристики. Тому можна очікувати,
що різні зони будуть демонструвати різну сприйнятливість до корозії.
Корозійні властивості основного металу та зварних швів, одержаних зва-
рюванням тертям з перемішуванням, досліджувалися з використанням
випробування в сольовому тумані (ASTM B117) за різних значень pH та
часів розпорошення. Оптична мікроскопія та просвітна електронна мік-
роскопія використовувалися для спостереження корозійного руйнування
в різних зонах зварного шва. Було встановлено, що зварні шви демон-
струють відмінну корозійну стійкість у лужних та нейтральних розчинах,
але не в кислих розчинах. Встановлено, що швидкість корозії зменшуєть-
ся з ростом часу витримки при всіх значеннях pH. Швидкість корозії була
максимальною в кислому розчині впродовж перших 24 годин тривалости
витримки. Корозійне руйнування більше в основному металі, ніж у мате-
ріялі зварного шва за всіх pH і тривалостей розпорошення. Всередині зва-
рного шва зона термічного впливу (ЗТВ) виявилася більш сприйнятливою
до корозії порівняно з ядром зварної точки та термомеханічно пошкодже-
ними районами. Результати, одержані за допомогою просвітної електрон-
ної мікроскопії, підтвердили, що збільшена швидкість корозії ЗТВ у кис-
лотному розчині обумовлена виділенням частинок другої фази (CuAl2) бі-
ля меж зерен, що призводить до збіднення міді поблизу меж зерен, робля-
чи ці райони анодними відносно центру зерна.
Алюминиевый сплав 2219 является наилучшим выбором среди дисперси-
онно-твердеющих сплавов, рассматриваемых для изготовления баков для
ракетного топлива длительного хранения в наземных условиях и баков
для криогенного ракетного топлива мобильных пусковых установок. В
данной работе пластины алюминиевого сплава AA2219-T87 толщиной 8,1
мм были соединены путём сварки трением с перемешиванием. Сварка
трением с перемешиванием образует три различные микроструктурные
зоны, и эти зоны демонстрируют разные микроструктурные характери-
стики. Поэтому можно ожидать, что разные зоны будут демонстрировать
разную восприимчивость к коррозии. Коррозионные свойства основного
металла и сварных швов, полученных сваркой трением с перемешивани-
ем, исследовались с использованием испытания в солевом тумане (ASTM
B117) при различных значениях pH и времени распыления. Оптическая
микроскопия и просвечивающая электронная микроскопия использова-
лись для наблюдения коррозионного разрушения в различных зонах
сварного шва. Было установлено, что сварные швы демонстрируют от-
личную коррозионную стойкость в щелочных и нейтральных растворах,
но не в кислых растворах. Установлено, что скорость коррозии уменьша-
ется с увеличением времени выдержки при всех значениях pH. Скорость
коррозии была максимальной в кислом растворе в течение первых 24 ча-
сов времени выдержки. Коррозионное разрушение больше в основном ме-
талле, чем в материале сварного шва при всех pH и временах распыления.
Внутри сварного шва зона термического влияния (ЗТВ) оказалась более
восприимчивой к коррозии по сравнению с ядром сварной точки и термо-
механически повреждёнными районами. Результаты, полученные с по-
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 541
мощью просвечивающей электронной микроскопии, подтвердили, что
возросшая скорость коррозии ЗТВ в кислотном растворе обусловлена вы-
делением частиц второй фазы (CuAl2) у границ зёрен, что приводит к
обеднению меди вблизи границ зёрен, делая эти районы анодными отно-
сительно центра зерна.
Key words: AA2219-T87 aluminium alloy, corrosion, salt spray (fog) test,
pH, spraying time, optical microscopy, transmission electron microscopy.
(Received December 24, 2014)
1. INTRODUCTION
AA2219 is an age hardenable Al—Cu alloy widely used in aerospace and
defence applications due to its excellent weldability and high strength
to weight ratio. However, its only disadvantage is its poor resistance to
corrosion owning to the galvanic coupling between noble CuAl2 precip-
itates and the matrix. If there could be some means by which CuAl2
could be taken into solution, the corrosion resistance of the alloy can be
improved, though this might lower the mechanical properties to some
extent. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid state welding process in
which melting does not occur but temperatures are sufficiently high
enough to cause dissolution and coarsening of strengthening precipi-
tates in heat treatable aluminium alloys [1].
Friction stir welding produces three different microstructural
zones: the weld nugget, the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ)
and heat affected zone (HAZ): the weld nugget (WN) where the materi-
al experiences severe stirring and heating resulted in fine equiaxed
grains, the thermomechanically affected zone, which is subjected to
both deformation and heating but that temperature is not sufficient to
cause recrystallization, and the heat affected zone, where the material
experiences only heat with no mechanical deformation. These zones
exhibit different microstructural characteristics. Therefore, it is ex-
pected that the various zones will exhibit different corrosion suscepti-
bility. There have been a number of reports [2—20] highlighting the
microstructural changes due to the plastic deformation and frictional
heat associated with FSW. Dissolution and coarsening of strengthen-
ing precipitates [2—5, 11, 16—20] as well as the formation of wide pre-
cipitate-free zones [3, 5, 11, 18] have been found in the weld region.
Mechanical failure of the welds can take place in the WN, HAZ, or
TMAZ regions depending on the amount of heat input, which is gov-
erned by process parameters such as rotation and travel speeds [12—
14]. The dependence of weld microstructure on processing parameters
has been also observed [15—17]. Although no solid—liquid phase trans-
formation occurs during FSW, relatively high temperatures, up to
475C for AA7075 aluminium alloy, are generated by friction between
542 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
the tool and the work piece [21, 22]. This produces modified micro-
structures that may be more susceptible to corrosion than the parent
alloy.
A number of authors [23—35] have investigated the corrosion behav-
iour of FSW in 2xxx, 7xxx, and 5xxx series aluminium alloys. Corro-
sion attack in the WN has been found for AA2024-T3 [32], AA2024-
T351, AA5456-H116, and AA7010—T7651 [35]. For AA7050-T7651
[25], attack was found at the interface between the WN and the partial-
ly recrystallized zone (TMAZ). A number of studies have shown attack
to be predominantly in the HAZ, for example in AA7075-T651 [26],
AA7075-T6 [27], AA2024-T351 [24, 34, 35] and AA7010-T7651 [23].
It has also been found that the weld region can show no worse corrosion
susceptibility than the base metal (in AA2024-T3 and AA2195 welds
[30]), and even in some cases, improved corrosion resistance compared
with the base material (AA5454 [29], AA5083 [31], AA2024-T3 [33],
AA2195, and AA2219 [28]). While many studies have been carried out
to investigate the effect of FSW on the microstructure and corrosion
properties of aluminium alloys, there are very few studies on the effect
of varying pH value of the salt solution and spraying times used.
Moreover, there has not been any systematic study reporting the rela-
tionship between exposure times and corrosion behaviour. Thus, the
aim of this work is to investigate how corrosion behaviour changes
with pH value, microstructure and time of exposure.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Base material used in this study is aluminium alloy AA2219-T87 plates
of 8.1 mm in thickness. Chemical composition of the material is given
in Table 1. FSW trials were carried out on a Friction Stir Welder at
DMRL, Hyderabad. A pair of work pieces of dimension 3001108.1
mm3
are abutted and clamped rigidly on the backing plate. The friction
stir welding tool was machined from M2 tool steel. After conducting
several trials with different tool pin profiles, it was found that tapered
threaded pin offers ease of welding and sound joints. The geometry of
the tool and the process parameters used in this study are presented in
Table 2. Transverse sections were cut from welded plates for corrosion
studies with a size of 50208.1 mm3
and prepared for metallographic
examination following standard metallographic practices. The pol-
ished specimens were etched with Keller’s (5% HNo3, 2% HCl, 1% HF)
TABLE 1. Chemical composition of AA2219-T87 in wt.%.
Cu Mn Zr Ti Fe Si Rest
6.7 0.30 0.07 0.06 0.14 0.10 Al
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 543
reagent to reveal the microstructure. The macro- and microstructures
of different zones were observed using a Leica DMLM light micro-
scope. Images were taken from different locations of the weld joint be-
fore corrosion.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is employed to ascertain
the shape, size, distribution, and the status of the precipitates of the
base material and different zones of the weld. There are several stages
involved in the preparation of samples for TEM. Sections were initially
cut from different zones of the etched sample of the weldment using
electric discharge machining (EDM) as shown in Fig. 1, so that the
samples consist of fully weld nugget, thermomechanically affected
zone, and heat affected zone. These samples were polished to 100 m
thickness by attaching the sample on TEM wax. Both processes men-
tioned above were carried out in flowing coolant and water to avoid
raise in temperature.
The disc punch is used to extract 3 mm diameter specimens from
Fig. 1. Macrostructure of 8.1 mm thick friction stir welded AA 2219-T87
joint.
TABLE 2. The tool geometry and process parameters used for friction stir
welding.
Nomenclature Weld parameters
Tool geometry
Taper threaded pin (left hand metric threads with
1.5 mm pitch); pin diameter: 7 mm (shoulder end)
and 4 mm (tip end); Pin length: 6.8 mm; shoulder
diameter: 20 mm
Tool rotational Speed 800 rpm
Welding speed 200 mm/min
Tool tilt 1.5
544 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
thin sections and further ground mechanically using disc grinder. Fi-
nally, ion milling is used to create a dimple on each side of the disc,
which is enlarged and forms a hole surrounded by a thin electron-
transmissive region. Electron microscope JEM-2100 with EDX capa-
bilities is used to study the samples. The samples were loaded into the
machine on a double tilting, low background, beryllium holder.
The salt spray (fog) test was conducted on the welds as well as on the
base materials according to ASTM B 117—07 [36] standards. This appa-
ratus consists of a fog chamber, a salt solution reservoir, a supply of
suitably conditioned compressed air, two atomizing nozzles, and spec-
imen supports. The salt solution is prepared by dissolving 5 1 parts
by mass of sodium chloride in 95 parts of water and keeping pH at dif-
ferent levels as 2, 7, and 11. The salt fog is produced in the chamber by
simultaneously spraying salt solution from reservoir and compressed
air from the air compressor. As the spray is continuous, the samples
are continuously wet and therefore uniformly subjected to corrosion.
Specimens are hanged 15 to 35 from vertical in the fog chamber in
such a way that salt solution from one specimen should not drip on any
other specimen. The weight loss of the material is measured after a pe-
riod of time, and corrosion rate (in mils per year–mpy) is calculated
using formula. Specimens, which have shown higher corrosion rate,
are considered as less resistant to general corrosion. The specimens are
taken out for every 24 hrs. The corroded layer on the surface of the
specimen is carefully removed using ultrasonic cleaner, chemical rea-
gents & distilled water. The corrosion rate is calculated by weight loss
measurement. Weight loss is measured by considering difference in
initial weight (Wi) and final weight (Wf) of the specimens. The corro-
sion rate is calculated using the following equation:
Corrosion rate (mm/year)
4
8.76 10 /( ),w ADT
where w is the weight loss in grams, A–the surface area of the speci-
men in cm
2, D–the density of the material in gram/cm3, T is the time
of exposure or spraying time in hours. The corroded samples are pol-
ished once again by disc polishing for scratch free surfaces and the sur-
face is observed at 500X magnification.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Macrostructure
Figure 1 shows macrostructure of 8.1 mm thick friction stir welded
joint without voids and cracks. The weld has an elliptical cross section
with a zone around the weld nugget that has undergone severe plastic
deformation.
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 545
It is generally known that the fusion welding of aluminium alloys,
accompanied by defects such as porosity, slag inclusions and solidifica-
tion cracks deteriorate the weld quality and joint properties. Usually,
friction stir welded joints are free from solidification-related defects,
since no melting takes place during welding and the metals are joined
together due to the heat generated by friction and the flow of metal by
the stirring action. However, FSW joints are prone to other defects
such as pinhole, tunnel defect, piping defect, kissing bond, zigzag line
and cracks due to improper flow of metal and insufficient consolida-
tion of metal in the FSW weld nugget region [39]. As can be seen from
Fig. 1, no obvious welding defect was found in the joint, indicating
that a sound weld is produced.
Based on the microstructural characterization of grains and precipi-
tates, three distinct zones have been identified: stir zone (weld nug-
get), thermomechanically affected zone, and heat affected zone. A typ-
ical macrographs showing various microstructural zones of the ellipti-
cal cross section with a zone around the weld nugget, which seems to be
a common feature in aluminium alloy friction stir welds has been re-
ported by various investigators [4, 11].
3.2. Microstructures
Figures 2 and 3 show the results of optical microscopy (OM) and trans-
mission electron microscopy respectively. The microstructure of the
base material consists of elongated grains in the rolling direction and
large second-phase particles are distributed randomly in the base mate-
rial (see Fig. 2, a). The measured grain size for the base material in the
rolling direction is 100 m. The transmission electron micrograph of
the base material is shown in Fig. 3, a. For the alloy AA2219, copper is
a principal alloying element and the primary strengthening precipi-
tates are the metastable 1
and 11
phases [37]. In the current study, the
measured size of these precipitates ranged from 25 to 100 nm.
The optical micrograph of the weld nugget is shown in Fig. 2, b. It
has been observed that the initial elongated grains of the base material
are mechanically converted into a new recrystallized equiaxed fine
grain structure, which is formed as a result of severe plastic defor-
mation and high temperatures caused by the rotational speed of the
tool involved in the stirring process. The average value of these recrys-
tallized fine equiaxial grains is in the range of 2—4 m. The value ob-
tained is in good agreement with Ref. [38]. The TEM image of the weld
nugget (see Fig. 3, b) is marked by the absence of well-aligned disc-
shaped precipitates. It indicates that the temperature experienced in
the weld nugget during FSW process is about 500C, which is above the
solution temperature and below the melting temperature of the alloy
[39, 40]. At this temperature, these precipitates have gone into solu-
546 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
tion during the welding process. This result is in good agreement with
Ref. [38].
Thermomechanical affected zone is the region surrounding the weld
nugget on either side, which experiences both temperature and defor-
mation during friction stir welding as shown in (Fig. 2, c). It is found
that the elongated grains in the base material are deformed in an up-
ward flowing pattern on either side of the weld nugget. Though this
region underwent plastic deformation, recrystallization did not occur
due to insufficient deformation strain.
Figure 3, c shows the micrograph of the TMAZ. It can be seen that
the TEM image of the TMAZ is similar to that of the weld nugget with
the morphology of the precipitates. It indicates that the dissolution of
the metastable phases is not as extensive as that in weld nugget due to
lower temperatures (460) obtained during welding process [38].
Heat affected zone is shown in Fig. 2, d. Beyond the TMAZ there is a
heat-affected zone. This zone experiences to heat about 250C exerted
a significant effect on the precipitate structure. It is found that the
HAZ retains the same grain structure as the base material.
Fig. 2. Optical micrographs of friction stir welded AA2219-T87 (a); base ma-
terial (b); weld nugget (c); TMAZ (d) HAZ.
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 547
Figure 3 shows the TEM image of HAZ. It can be seen that the struc-
tural form of the precipitates in HAZ is the same as that of the base
material. If Al—Cu alloys are aged above 190C, the equilibrium CuAl2
intermetallic compound () is formed and the alloy is severely overaged
and weaker than base material [38]. With temperatures in the range of
150 to 250C in the HAZ region of the welded plates [38], the coarsen-
ing of precipitates in this region in turn forms precipitated free zones.
These zones are obviously regions of weakness.
3.3. Corrosion Properties
The corrosion rates of base material and friction stir welds for pH val-
a
b
c
d
Fig. 3. Transmission electron micrographs of friction stir welded AA2219-
T87 (a); base material (b); weld nugget (c); TMAZ (d) HAZ.
548 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
ue at different times of exposure (28, 48 and 72 hrs) are presented in
Table 3. It is observed that the corrosion rate of the weld decreases
with increase in time of exposure.
The same trend found to occur for pH value of 7 (Table 4) and pH
value of 11 (Table 5). It is found that the corrosion resistance of the
weld is better than that of the base material. It has been found that the
corrosion resistance of the weld increases with an increase in pH value.
TABLE 3. Corrosion rates for pH value of 2 at various times of exposure.
No. Material Type
Weight
before
corrosion, g
Weight after corrosion, g Weight
loss, g
Corrosion
rate,
mm/year 24 h 48 h 72 h
1 Base
B1
B2
B3
17.1504
17.2199
15.3467
17.1413
17.2116
15.3130
0.0079
0.0083
0.0097
10.3723
5.4480
4.2452
2 Weld
W1
W2
W3
16.8228
16.5021
15.3405
16.8169
16.4729
15.3319
0.0054
0.0090
0.0086
7.0899
5.9082
3.7637
TABLE 4. Corrosion rates for pH value of 7 at various times of exposure.
No. Material Type
Weight
before
corrosion, g
Weight after corrosion, g Weight
loss, g
Corrosion
rate,
mm/year 24 h 48 h 72 h
1 Base
B1
B2
B3
16.8423
16.2003
15.3195
16.8374
16.1856
15.3108
0.0049
0.0089
0.0087
6.4334
5.8426
3.8075
2 Weld
W1
W2
W3
14.3510
16.0670
14.2264
14.3488
16.0649
14.2245
0.0022
0.0021
0.0019
2.8884
1.3785
0.8315
TABLE 5. Corrosion rates for pH value of 11 at various times of exposure.
No. Material Type
Weight
before
corrosion, g
Weight after corrosion, g Weight
loss, g
Corrosion
rate,
mm/year 24 h 48 h 72 h
1 Base
B1
B2
B3
14.3510
16.0670
14.2264
14.2188
16.0549
13.8474
0.0002
0.0005
0.0008
0.2625
0.3282
0.3501
2 Weld
W1
W2
W3
15.8173
14.4262
15.4687
15.8126
14.4255
15.4679
0.0004
0.0007
0.0008
0.5251
0.4590
0.3501
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 549
Figure 4 shows microstructures of the base material for all pH val-
ues at corresponding times of exposure. It was identified that corro-
sion attack on the base material is the highest for pH 2 at the spraying
time of 24 h. Corrosion attack on base material seemed to be much less
for pH value of 11. Aluminium alloy 2219 has two types of the second
phase particles, viz., intermetallic phases formed during casting and
those formed during aging. Both these second phase particles influ-
ence corrosion.
Corrosion attack on weld nugget is evident (Fig. 5) and no signifi-
cant difference in the attack is seen based on pH value and spraying
time. TMAZ of the weld region is also attacked by the corrosion (Fig. 6)
and there remains no difference in the attack with reference to pH val-
ue of the solution and time of exposure.
Fig. 4. Optical micrographs of the base material at pH 2 (a, b, c), pH 7 (d, e, f)
and pH 11 (g, h, i) and corresponding spraying time (24, 48 and 72 hrs).
550 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
Figure 7 shows the micrographs of the HAZ region of the weld. It
can be clearly seen that the corrosion attack on the weld is predominant
in the HAZ and various researchers [26, 27] have reported the same.
Figure 3 shows the TEM image of HAZ. It can be seen that the struc-
tural form of the precipitates in HAZ is the same as that of the base
material.
If Al—Cu alloys are aged above 190C, the equilibrium CuAl2 inter-
metallic compound () is formed and the alloy is severely overaged and
weaker than the base material [38]. With temperatures in the range of
150 to 250C in the HAZ region of the welded plates, the coarsening of
precipitates in turn forms precipitated free zones.
Fig. 5. Optical micrograph of the nugget at pH 2 (a, b, c), pH 7 (d, e, f) and pH
11 (g, h, i) and corresponding spraying time (24, 48 and 72 hrs).
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 551
These zones are obviously regions of weakness. It indicates that the
precipitation of noble second phase particles (CuAl2) at the grain
boundaries causes depletion of copper near the grain boundaries, mak-
ing these regions anodic with respect to the grain centre [41].
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. AA2219-T87 aluminium alloy 8.1 mm thick plates were successfully
joined using friction stir welding.
2. The corrosion behaviour of the base material and friction stir welded
joints was investigated using salt fog test (ASTM B117) at different
pH values and spraying times.
Fig. 6. Optical micrograph of the thermomechanically affected zone at pH 2
(a, b, c), pH 7 (d, e, f) and pH 11 (g, h, i) and corresponding spraying time (24,
48 and 72 hrs).
552 G. SRINIVASA RAO, V. V. SUBBA RAO, and S. R. KOTESWARA RAO
3. It was observed that the welds exhibited excellent corrosion re-
sistance in basic and neutral solution and not in acidic solution.
4. It was found that the corrosion rate decreases with increase in time
of exposure at all pH values.
5. It has been observed that the corrosion rate was predominant in acid-
ic solution for the first 24 hrs of spraying time.
6. It was found that corrosion attack is higher in the base material than
in the weld metal at all pH values and spraying times. Within the weld,
the heat-affected zone has been found to be more susceptible to corro-
sion, which is caused by the precipitation of the second phase particles
(CuAl2) at the grain boundaries, which causes depletion of copper near
the grain boundaries, making these regions anodic in regard to the
grain centre.
Fig. 7. Optical micrograph of the heat affected zone at pH 2 (a, b, c), pH 7 (d,
e, f) and pH 11 (g, h, i) and corresponding spraying time (24, 48 and 72hrs).
MICROSTRUCTURE AND SALT FOG CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF AA2219 ALLOY 553
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Dr. G. Madhusudhan Reddy, Scientist G, of
Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL), Hyderabad for
providing FSW facility to carry out this investigation.
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/NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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/ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
>>
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames true
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks false
/AddPageInfo false
/AddRegMarks false
/ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
/DestinationProfileName ()
/DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
|