Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers
The construction of cooled photodiode for medical lasers with non-linearity of output performance in the range from 10⁻⁸ to 10⁻¹ W not more than 1.05 % is suggested. Regulation of cooling the crystal of photodiode is performed by means of specific software controlling the temperature of the photodio...
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Інститут фізики напівпровідників імені В.Є. Лашкарьова НАН України
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irk-123456789-1212722017-06-14T03:06:58Z Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers Dobrovolsky, Yu. Pidkamin, L. Kuzenko, V. The construction of cooled photodiode for medical lasers with non-linearity of output performance in the range from 10⁻⁸ to 10⁻¹ W not more than 1.05 % is suggested. Regulation of cooling the crystal of photodiode is performed by means of specific software controlling the temperature of the photodiode crystal depending on the value of its photocurrent. 2015 Article Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers / Yu. Dobrovolsky, L. Pidkamin, V. Kuzenko // Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics. — 2015. — Т. 18, № 4. — С. 443-447. — Бібліогр.: 21 назв. — англ. 1560-8034 DOI: 10.15407/spqeo18.04.443 PACS 85.60.Dw http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/121272 en Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics Інститут фізики напівпровідників імені В.Є. Лашкарьова НАН України |
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The construction of cooled photodiode for medical lasers with non-linearity of output performance in the range from 10⁻⁸ to 10⁻¹ W not more than 1.05 % is suggested. Regulation of cooling the crystal of photodiode is performed by means of specific software controlling the temperature of the photodiode crystal depending on the value of its photocurrent. |
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Article |
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Dobrovolsky, Yu. Pidkamin, L. Kuzenko, V. |
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Dobrovolsky, Yu. Pidkamin, L. Kuzenko, V. Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics |
| author_facet |
Dobrovolsky, Yu. Pidkamin, L. Kuzenko, V. |
| author_sort |
Dobrovolsky, Yu. |
| title |
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers |
| title_short |
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers |
| title_full |
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers |
| title_fullStr |
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers |
| title_sort |
thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers |
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Інститут фізики напівпровідників імені В.Є. Лашкарьова НАН України |
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2015 |
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http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/121272 |
| citation_txt |
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation of medical lasers / Yu. Dobrovolsky, L. Pidkamin, V. Kuzenko // Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics. — 2015. — Т. 18, № 4. — С. 443-447. — Бібліогр.: 21 назв. — англ. |
| series |
Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics |
| work_keys_str_mv |
AT dobrovolskyyu thermostabilizedphotodiodeformonitoringradiationofmedicallasers AT pidkaminl thermostabilizedphotodiodeformonitoringradiationofmedicallasers AT kuzenkov thermostabilizedphotodiodeformonitoringradiationofmedicallasers |
| first_indexed |
2025-07-08T19:30:40Z |
| last_indexed |
2025-07-08T19:30:40Z |
| _version_ |
1837108341256486912 |
| fulltext |
Semiconductor Physics, Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics, 2015. V. 18, N 4. P. 443-447.
doi: 10.15407/spqeo18.04.443
© 2015, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
443
PACS 85.60.Dw
Thermostabilized photodiode for monitoring radiation
of medical lasers
Yu. Dobrovolsky, L. Pidkamin, V. Kuzenko
Chernivtsi, Ukraine
Phone: (03722) 57-50-52, e-mail: yuriydrg@ukr.net
Abstract. The construction of cooled photodiode for medical lasers with non-linearity of
output performance in the range from 10
–8
to 10
–1
W not more than 1.05 % is suggested.
Regulation of cooling the crystal of photodiode is performed by means of specific
software controlling the temperature of the photodiode crystal depending on the value of
its photocurrent.
Keywords: photodiode, non-linearity, medical laser, thermoelectric module, output
performance.
Manuscript received 23.04.15; revised version received 10.08.15; accepted for
publication 28.10.15; published online 03.12.15.
1. Introduction
Linearization of output performance of sensors
transforming energy fluxes into an analogue signal is
one of topical tasks in modern optoelectronics. The
degree of linearization of a sensor in a certain range of
energy or power of optical radiation determines the
range of measurements by using a corresponding device.
The energy range of the sources of optical radiation,
laser sources in particular, changes from a few
microwatts to hundreds and thousands of watts. These
conditions require nonlinearity of output performance in
such ranges of received power from sensors and, in
particular, photodiodes intended for measuring the
fluxes of laser radiation. Actually, the necessity of
providing the dynamic range of a photodiode from 9 to
10 orders is meant; and this is a rather difficult task. This
problem is urgent when dealing with monitoring the flux
of laser radiation produced by medical lasers, since their
radiation affects human body. In this case,
measurements of laser radiation power should be
performed with a minimal error. Nonlinearity of output
performance is one of the constituent parts of the
measurement error of laser radiation output power as a
flow of optical radiation. Generally, for serial sensors
this error is less than ± 1 % in the dynamic range of 7…8
orders [1].
Thus, the problem of enlarging the dynamic range
of a photodiode or minimization of nonlinearity of out-
put performance in the wide dynamic range – up to 10
orders – appears to be important for modern measuring
equipments intended for measuring output performance
of laser radiation sources for medical purposes.
Therefore, the aim of this research is to study the
factors affecting the nonlinearity of output performance
of a photodiode in the wide range of energy or power
measurement for optimization of the construction of
meters of output performance of laser radiation sources
for medical purposes.
2. Results
Nonlinearity of output performance determining the dyna-
mic range of a photodiode as a quality parameter is widely
used in world practice [2]. Nowadays, the output per-
formance or photocurrent of photodiodes is limited by two
Semiconductor Physics, Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics, 2015. V. 18, N 4. P. 443-447.
doi: 10.15407/spqeo18.04.443
© 2015, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
444
factors: the value of photocurrent achieved due to the
increase of space charge in the volume of photodiode [3]
and heat released in the photodiode crystal, because it is
heated by the motion of charges caused by the first factor.
These two factors are the reasons of disastrous inten-
sification of charge carriers’ motion through p-n junction.
It is shown in [4] that the decrease of the effect related
with space charge can be achieved by changing the con-
struction and technique of photodiodes contacts, with
maintaining high performance and good linearity. The ad-
vantage of the suggested structure consists in the fact that
only electrons possessing higher velocity than a certain
boundary value are used as active carriers. A new con-
struction has an additional layer controlling the relative
voltage of electric field in the absorption layer of collector
region [5]. Such an approach enabled to achieve the
maximal photocurrent of 152 mА at 6 V of reverse bias at
18 GHz. The diameter of the area of photosensitive
element was 40 μm. Illumination of the photodiode was
performed from the back side of the photodiode crystal. In
this device, the heat generated in the gain region of
mesostructure is generally diffused on the substrate and
partially – to the ambient air. The light passes through the
substrate that has an antireflective coating on its surface
receiving optical radiation. The maximal output
photocurrent reached in this structure of a photodiode is
not limited by saturation and thermal injury.
Among other different techniques of improving the
heat diffusion, it appeared to be possible to reach the
best result on the suggested structures. Go with
coauthors F.-M. Kuo, M.-Z. Chou, and J.-W. Shi [6]
reported about two cascaded photodiodes with similar
structure and output performance 63 MW at 95 GHz [6].
Itakura et al. demonstrated maximal output performance
from 790 MW at 5 GHz with the use of a flip-chip of 4-
diode matrices with monolithic integrated Wilkinson
power combiner [7].
The present-day state-of-the-art in the problem
under study – minimization of nonlinearity of output
performance of photodiodes in the wide dynamic range –
is presented in [8]. Here, the problems concerning
production of high-power photodiodes with a modified
construction providing high level of linearity of the
output signal from the incident optical power named by
the authors as “flip-chips” are considered.
The dependence of nonlinearity of output power at
more intensive illumination (photocurrent reaches the
value 100 mA) as the dependence on the area of a
photosensitive element [9] was also investigated. It has
been shown that sensitivity of photodetectors with
greater area of gain region reached saturation at higher
photocurrent if compared with the devices based on
photodiodes with smaller gain region.
A short review of the known solutions of this
problem shows that two main factors determining
nonlinearity of output performance of a photodiode –
photocurrent saturation obtained due to increase of space
charge in the volume of photodiode and heat generated
on the crystal of photodiode as a result of its heating by
charges motion caused by the first factor – are
interrelated. It is evident that, having solved the problem
of photodiode heating that grows in proportional to the
growth of optical radiation received by the photo-
sensitive plate of the photodiode, it would be possible to
decrease nonlinearity of output performance of the
photodiode and thus, to enlarge its dynamic range.
Non-stability of photodiode sensitivity (δt) in time
assessed by five measurements registered in equal time
intervals (1–15 min) also leads to increase of
nonlinearity of output power of a photodiode.
Another reason of deviation in the output
performance of a photodiode from linearity, in our
opinion, consists in temperature error of photodiode
operation, though it comes from the main problem –
heating of a photodiode under the impact of incident
optical radiation.
It comes from all the mentioned above that
minimization of nonlinearity of output performance can
be obtained by means of reducing heat emission of the
sensitive element and adjacent to it parts of a photodiode
[10-12], i.e. by cooling the photodiode.
Thermoelectric modules are rather efficient in this
sense [13]. However, in our case, when using thermos-
electric cooling, besides the problem of minimizing the
nonlinearity of output performance at simultaneous
enlarging the dynamic range of a photodiode, we face
the task of producing the thermoelectric modules (TEM)
with the time of reaching the operation mode 1…4 s. We
should also achieve homogeneity of temperature
distribution on the cold edge of TEM within 0.1…0.3 °С
for uniform cooling the photodiodes with large areas of a
photosensitive element.
It is suggested in [14, 15] to obtain simplified
constructions and decrease the time of reaching the
working temperature of cooling by a semiconductor
thermostatic photodetector through uniting the TEM and
a photodiode crystal in one device, in which on the back
side of a photodiode crystal the insulating layer with
electric commutation paths connected to branches of
thermoelectric module is formed. Such a device enables
to operate the time of thermoelectric module reaching
the cooling mode due to the fact that this time, besides
other reasons, depends on the thickness of commutation
layer, which in this case is used in the form of insulating
layer on the back side of a photodetector. The thickness
of insulating layer can be regulated by the time of its
deposition and, thus, within certain limits, it is possible
to create the devices with the given time of reaching the
operation mode of cooling.
The crystal of a photodiode produced on the basis
of high-resistance silicon of n-type conductivity
(resistivity of original silicon is about 600 Ohm/cm)
intended for registration of optical radiation with the
wavelengths 635, 665, 810, 915 nm, is widely used in
medical devices. The suggested wavelengths correspond
to absorption spectrum of optical radiation in silicon,
which enables to use it for registering radiation of above
mentioned wavelength.
Semiconductor Physics, Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics, 2015. V. 18, N 4. P. 443-447.
doi: 10.15407/spqeo18.04.443
© 2015, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
445
Fig. 1 presents the scheme of the suggested
temperature-controlled p-i-n photodiode.
The photo of a temperature-controlled photodiode
based on PD-288 with TEM is adduced in Fig. 2.
The back side of the photodiode crystal (1) contains
the insulating layer (2), on which the electric
commutation paths (3) are formed with branches of
thermoelectric module (4) connected with them. The
branches of thermoelectric module are connected with
electric commutation paths (5) of heat-absorbing
ceramic plate of the module (6), united with the header
of the device (7) functioning as a heatsink. By means of
copper-tinned (8) and golden (9) conductors, the
thermoelectric module and photodetector are connected
to the outputs of the device (10). The device assembled
on the header is encapsulated with the cover (11)
possessing the glass input window (12).
The suggested semiconductor temperature-
controlled photodetector operates in the following way.
Being in the operation regime, when receiving optical
radiation, it is heated. The error of readout of e.g.
illumination measured by the photodiode PD-288
increases by 0.2%. It occurs due to the increase of
photodiode noise with the growth of its temperature.
This leads to the increase of nonlinearity of output
performance and deterioration of its dynamic range.
Fig. 1. Scheme of the suggested temperature-controlled p-i-n
photodiode. 1 – crystal photodiode; 2 – dielectric layer; 3 –
electrical switching paths; 4 – branches of the thermo-electric
module; 5 – electrical switching tracks heat-ceramic plate
module; 6 – heat absorbing ceramic plate; 7 – base; 8, 9 –
tinned copper conductors and gold; 10 – terminals of the
device; 11 – cover; 12 – glass entrance window.
Fig. 2. Photo of a temperature-controlled photodiode based on
PD-288 with TEM.
When the thermoelectric module is switched on,
electric current flows in its branches; which causes
temperature reduction of the cold edge of the module
and temperature reduction of the photodiode crystal
located on this side of the module. Owing to small
thickness of insulating layer on the back side of the
photodetector, the temperature on it changes fast,
practically simultaneously with cooling the cold seals of
the module. In this case, the speed of cooling the cold
edges of branches is determined by their geometric
parameters, in particular by height that depends on how
the photodiode should by cooled. Therefore, simplifying
the construction of the device and reducing the time of
its reaching the operation temperature is achieved due to
the fact that, on the one hand, heat transmission from the
photodetector to thermoelectric module is performed
directly without loss on additional elements, and, on the
other hand, due to the small height of the branches.
The silicon p-n photodiode of PD-288 type, the
thickness of which is 300 μm and area – 100 mm
2
, was
used as a crystal in the experiment. The operation regime
of the photodiode is photovoltaic. On the back side of
the photodiode, the insulating layer – silicon oxide
1…3 μm thick is applied, on which electric commutation
copper paths with antidiffusion nickel substrate are
formed by the method of vacuum deposition. The
branches of the thermoelectric module made from solid
solution of Bi-Te-Se-Sb [12] with the height 1 mm are
assembled on the electric commutation paths of
commutation plate and by means of ПОС 61 solder are
connected with electric commutation paths of the cold
edge of the module. The commutation plate made from
ceramics 22ХС is connected with metallic header of the
device, which acts as a heatsink. The whole construction
is encapsulated by the cover with glass input window.
The construction of the thermoelectric module is
calculated according to the classical technique [16] and
consists of six rows by six branches of p- and n-type of
conductivity. Geometrical sizes of a branch are
1.1×1.1×1.8 mm. The maximal current consumption of
the module is 0.3 A. The maximal refrigeration capacity
is 1 W.
However, further research showed that such a
construction has certain lag. At the thickness of
insulating layer 2 μm, the photodiode is cooled to 5 °C
within the time of about 10 s. Further, this temperature
of the photodiode crystal does not remain stable; it rather
“fluctuates” within 4…7 °C depending on the
illumination change. Knowing that the temperature error
in the measurements is 0.2%/°C, one can assess that at
illumination of 1000 lux at 20 °C and at 1000 lux at
40 °C the range of fluctuations of the real value of
illumination will amount to 40 lux. In this case, the
nonlinearity of output performance of the photodiode
will fluctuate, too.
To reduce the influence of this factor, we suggested
the scheme of monitoring the temperature of a
photodiode. According to this scheme, the crystal of the
photodiode is a cold side of TEM, while the supply
1 2 3 4
9
6 5 7
8
10 10
11
12
Semiconductor Physics, Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics, 2015. V. 18, N 4. P. 443-447.
doi: 10.15407/spqeo18.04.443
© 2015, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
446
current of TEM is determined by the value of
photocurrent generated by the photodiode FTEM IfI .
To be more exact, the supply current of TEM is
controlled by photocurrent. The greater the photocurrent
is, the smaller the TEM supply current is. The control of
the process of maintaining the temperature of a
photodiode crystal through controlling its photocurrent is
performed by means of analogue-digital scheme, created
according to the technical solution described in [17]. The
suggested schematic constructive solution enables to
monitor the microprocess beginning with the
photocurrent 10
–12
to 410
–10
А and finishing 10
–3
А,
which corresponds to the power from 10
-8
to 10
–1
W.
Thus, it is obvious that the photodiode with the
suggested cooling scheme in the form of TEM operated
by microcontroller is capable of providing the dynamic
range not less than 9 orders. In this range, the
nonlinearity of output performance of a photodiode does
not exceed 1…2% according to provisional assessment.
To verify our suggestion, five crystals of the
photodiode PD-288 were selected. On their base, the
temperature-controlled photodetectors were assembled
according to the above described construction (Fig. 1)
and their dynamic range, nonlinearity of output
performance and temperature dependence were
investigated.
The authors of [18] suggested a new way of
assessment of output performance nonlinearity of a
photodiode consisting in the fact that this parameter is
estimated by means of three measuring systems to
compare the measurement accuracy of various
parameters. It is shown that this method can be used for
specification of measurement errors in nonlinearity of
output performance and establishes the criteria of mutual
changeability of these settings.
To investigate the dynamic range and nonlinearity
of output performances, we used in general a similar but
simpler method of additional illumination [19]. To
realize this method, a special light source was used [20].
The temperature characteristics was investigated
according to the standard technique [21].
The results of above mentioned parameters of
temperature-controlled photodiodes are presented in
Fig. 3 (Dependence of nonlinearity of output
performance of thermostabilized photodiode on optical
power), Fig. 4 (Output performance), Fig. 5 (Thermal
dependence of photocurrent).
It can be seen in the figures that experimental
samples of photodiodes show nonlinearity of output
performance not less than 0.75…1.8% in the power
range from 10–8 to 10–1 W. That is, the change of
nonlinearity does not exceed 1.05%. The temperature
dependence of the photodiodes shows that fluctuations
in photocurrent within the range from 10–12 to 10–2 А
heat the photodiodes to no more than 5 K (from 276 to
281 K). Thus, TEM keeps the temperature of a crystal
under the condition of measuring the optical radiation
flow within 278 K.
Fig. 3. Dependence of nonlinearity of output performance of
thermostabilized photodiode on optical power. Here are five of
crystals according to the photodiodes PD-288.
Fig. 4. Energy characteristic of thermally stabilized
photodiode. Here are five of crystals according to the
photodiodes PD-288.
Fig. 5. Thermal dependence of photocurrent. Here are five of
crystals according to the photodiodes PD-288.
It should be taken into account that the
measurements were performed on experimental samples
of photodiodes assembled in the laboratory. At more
thorough selection of couples “photodiode – TEM”, it is
possible to obtain more precise characteristics.
Dispersion of parameters between the samples are
explained by non-identity of both the crystals of
photodiodes and TEM characteristics. Measurement
errors of photocurrent did not exceed 5%.
0.5
1.0
1.5
ΔP, %
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
P, W
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
P, W
10
-12
10
-8
IPh, A
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
-12
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
IPh,A
273
278
T, K
283
Semiconductor Physics, Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics, 2015. V. 18, N 4. P. 443-447.
doi: 10.15407/spqeo18.04.443
© 2015, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
447
The suggested approach to solving the problem of
enlarging the dynamic range of a photodiode and,
consequently, to reducing its nonlinearity enables to
make preconditions for virtual enlarging the dynamic
range of a photodiode in the region of evident
nonlinearity of a photosignal. At more detailed work-out
of the technique of producing the suggested cooling
photodiode structures, it is possible to reach
minimization of nonlinearity of output performance in
the investigated power range to the value of less than
1%. This enables to reduce the measurement error of
output performance of laser radiation and to increase
accuracy of doses of laser impact on man, which is one
of the most topical tasks of modern medical equipment.
3. Conclusions
1. The factors affecting nonlinearity of output
performance of photodiodes have been analyzed. It has
been shown that these can be reduced due to decrease of
temperature characteristics of a photodiode.
2. To optimize the temperature characteristics of a
photodiode, the construction of cooling photodiode for
medical lasers has been suggested, in which the
photodiode crystal is the upper edge of a thermoelectric
module. This provides its cooling to 5 °C within 10 s.
3. The scheme of controlling the temperature of
cooled diode has been suggested, in which the value of
TEM supply current is determined by that of
photocurrent generated by the photodiode. In this case,
the nonlinearity of output performance in the range from
10
–8
to 10
–1
does not exceed 1.05%.
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