The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer
In many developed countries prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in human population. Prostate tissue is characterized by the highest level of polyamines among organs in human body, and it is even higher in prostate carcinomas. These ubiquitous molecules are synthesize...
Збережено в:
| Дата: | 2006 |
|---|---|
| Автори: | , , |
| Формат: | Стаття |
| Мова: | English |
| Опубліковано: |
Інститут експериментальної патології, онкології і радіобіології ім. Р.Є. Кавецького НАН України
2006
|
| Назва видання: | Experimental Oncology |
| Теми: | |
| Онлайн доступ: | http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/137578 |
| Теги: |
Додати тег
Немає тегів, Будьте першим, хто поставить тег для цього запису!
|
| Назва журналу: | Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| Цитувати: | The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer / N. Palavan-Unsal, S.M. Aloglu-Senturk, D. Arisan // Experimental Oncology. — 2006. — Т. 28, № 3. — С. 178-186. — Бібліогр.: 118 назв. — англ. |
Репозитарії
Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine| id |
irk-123456789-137578 |
|---|---|
| record_format |
dspace |
| spelling |
irk-123456789-1375782018-06-18T03:05:05Z The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer Palavan-Unsal, N. Aloglu-Senturk, S.M. Arisan, D. Reviews In many developed countries prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in human population. Prostate tissue is characterized by the highest level of polyamines among organs in human body, and it is even higher in prostate carcinomas. These ubiquitous molecules are synthesized by prostate epithelium and are involved in many biochemical processes including cell proliferation, cell cycle regulation and protein synthesis. In this review we made the attempt to discuss the functions of polyamines, their involvement in apoptosis and potential role as molecular biomarker for prostate cancer. Also we present recent data on generation of drugs, in particular, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor, developed for therapy of prostate cancer. Во многих развитых странах рак предстательной железы занимает первое место как причина смертности вследствие онкологических заболеваний. Ткань предстательной железы характеризуется наиболее высоким уровнем содержания полиаминов в сравнении с другими органами человека, причем в ткани карциномы простаты их содержание еще выше. Эти биомолекулы синтезируются эпителиальными клетками предстательной железы и принимают участие во многих биохимических процессах, включая пролиферацию клеток, регуляцию клеточного цикла и синтез белков. В обзоре обсуждаются функции полиаминов в клетке, их участие в процессах апоптоза и потенциальная роль в качестве биомаркеров при раке предстательной железы. Кроме того, приведены новые данные о разработке препаратов, в частности ингибитора циклинзависимой киназы, предназначенных для лечения рака предстательной железы. 2006 Article The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer / N. Palavan-Unsal, S.M. Aloglu-Senturk, D. Arisan // Experimental Oncology. — 2006. — Т. 28, № 3. — С. 178-186. — Бібліогр.: 118 назв. — англ. 1812-9269 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/137578 en Experimental Oncology Інститут експериментальної патології, онкології і радіобіології ім. Р.Є. Кавецького НАН України |
| institution |
Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| collection |
DSpace DC |
| language |
English |
| topic |
Reviews Reviews |
| spellingShingle |
Reviews Reviews Palavan-Unsal, N. Aloglu-Senturk, S.M. Arisan, D. The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer Experimental Oncology |
| description |
In many developed countries prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in human population. Prostate tissue is characterized by the highest level of polyamines among organs in human body, and it is even higher in prostate carcinomas. These ubiquitous molecules are synthesized by prostate epithelium and are involved in many biochemical processes including cell proliferation, cell cycle regulation and protein synthesis. In this review we made the attempt to discuss the functions of polyamines, their involvement in apoptosis and potential role as molecular biomarker for prostate cancer. Also we present recent data on generation of drugs, in particular, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor, developed for therapy of prostate cancer. |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Palavan-Unsal, N. Aloglu-Senturk, S.M. Arisan, D. |
| author_facet |
Palavan-Unsal, N. Aloglu-Senturk, S.M. Arisan, D. |
| author_sort |
Palavan-Unsal, N. |
| title |
The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer |
| title_short |
The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer |
| title_full |
The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer |
| title_fullStr |
The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer |
| title_full_unstemmed |
The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer |
| title_sort |
function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer |
| publisher |
Інститут експериментальної патології, онкології і радіобіології ім. Р.Є. Кавецького НАН України |
| publishDate |
2006 |
| topic_facet |
Reviews |
| url |
http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/137578 |
| citation_txt |
The function of poliamine metabolism in prostate cancer / N. Palavan-Unsal, S.M. Aloglu-Senturk, D. Arisan // Experimental Oncology. — 2006. — Т. 28, № 3. — С. 178-186. — Бібліогр.: 118 назв. — англ. |
| series |
Experimental Oncology |
| work_keys_str_mv |
AT palavanunsaln thefunctionofpoliaminemetabolisminprostatecancer AT aloglusenturksm thefunctionofpoliaminemetabolisminprostatecancer AT arisand thefunctionofpoliaminemetabolisminprostatecancer AT palavanunsaln functionofpoliaminemetabolisminprostatecancer AT aloglusenturksm functionofpoliaminemetabolisminprostatecancer AT arisand functionofpoliaminemetabolisminprostatecancer |
| first_indexed |
2025-07-10T02:37:14Z |
| last_indexed |
2025-07-10T02:37:14Z |
| _version_ |
1837225776061087744 |
| fulltext |
178 Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September)
Since prostate cancer (Pca) is a heterogeneous di
sease, it becomes clear that a defined set of markers will
become important for early diagnosis, monitoring and
prognosis of Pca. Polyamines (PAs) (putrescine (Put),
spermidine (Spd) and spermine (Spm)) which play a
significant role in the regulation of growth and develop
ment of different cell types [1–3] are among potential
biomarkers. Elevated PAs levels are not specific for
Pca only, but they are good indicators for monitoring
of the disease and may serve as biomarkers for rapidly
proliferating cells. PA content is regulated by many
events such as biosynthesis and catabolic processes,
genetic control of key enzymes at transcriptional and
translational stage, regular diet. The induction of PA
synthesis by any stimulus results in increased rate of
DNA, RNA and protein synthesis [1–6].
Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is a key enzyme
that catalyzes the conversion of ornithine to Put. Then
Put is converted to Spd and Spm by Spdsynthetase
and Spmsynthetase respectively [1, 2, 7, 8]. PAs are
very important cationic molecules for cell homeostasis.
If an excess amount of PA is accumulated in the cells,
these molecules undergo oxidation in peroxisomes
with involvement of monoamine oxidases, in particular
PA oxidase (PAO). Oxidation of Spd and Spm occur
only after N1acetylation by spermidine/spermine
N1acetyltransferase (SSAT) present in cytoplasm [8,
10, 11]. PAs may be degraded also by diamine oxidase
(DAO), a copper/quinone containing serum amine
oxidase. This enzyme is generally responsible for the
cytotoxicity of PAs in in vitro models in the presence of
fetal calf serum, but its physiological role is not clearly
understood [12, 13]. Arginase catalyzes the oxidation
of PAs such as Spm and Spd, to much less active
compound called Put (Fig. 1) [14].
The content of PAs depends on two main sources:
external (consumptiondependent PAs or usage of
deposit PA from red blood cells) and synthesis that is
regulated by ODC under the control of c-Myc gene [1,
9]. The excess amounts of PAs are excreted via efflux
mechanism after conversion to N1acetylspermine
and N1acetylspermidine. PAs may affect cell death
by modulating the release of cytochrome c from
mitochondria, which triggers activation of caspases
and induction of apoptosis. PAs may also affect signal
transduction pathways mediated by the nuclear tran
scription factorB (NFkB), mitogen activated protein
kinase (MAPK) family members and, possibly, other
kinases which modulate the expression of genes impli
cated in the control of cell growth and cell death. The
proposed hypothesis postulates that NFkB may modu
late both growth and death mechanisms using PPARγ
and polyamine response element (PRE). ODC plays
the central role in this network, quickly transforming
external signals (growth promoting stimuli, hormones,
drugs, growth factors, mitogens) in biological activity.
The data demonstrated that overexpression of ODC
leads to transformation of cells [15–19].
ODC expression is controlled at the transcriptional,
translational and posttranslational level [20]. ODC
degradation is regulated by regulatory enzyme called
antizyme (AZ) that is induced by PAmediated shifting
of translational frame [21]. AZ binds to ODC monomers
and stimulates their proteolytic degradation in proteo
somes. AZ also downregulates PA’s uptake by cells.
In turn, activity of AZ is regulated by special inhibitor
homologous to ODC [22].
Despite numerous studies, the specific role of
the ODCPA system in cellular physiology is still not
clarified yet.
Role of Polyamines in Cell GRowth
and diffeRentiation
PAs are able to bind to macromolecules such as
nucleic acids, proteins and phospholipids at physio
logical pH. Consequently, it has been suggested that
PAs are necessary for stabilization of these molecules.
Spd and Spm cause condensation and aggregation
the funCtion of Poliamine metabolism in PRostate CanCeR
N. Palavan-Unsal*, S.M. Aloglu-Senturk, D. Arısan
Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Halic University, Istanbul, Turkey
In many developed countries prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in human population. Prostate
tissue is characterized by the highest level of polyamines among organs in human body, and it is even higher in prostate carcinomas.
These ubiquitous molecules are synthesized by prostate epithelium and are involved in many biochemical processes including cell
proliferation, cell cycle regulation and protein synthesis. In this review we made the attempt to discuss the functions of polyamines,
their involvement in apoptosis and potential role as molecular biomarker for prostate cancer. Also we present recent data on gene
ration of drugs, in particular, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor, developed for therapy of prostate cancer.
Key Words: prostate cancer, polyamines, CDK inhibitors, olomoucine, bohemine, roscovitine.
Received: May 15, 2006.
*Correspondence: Fax: 90 212 530 35 35
E-mail: palavan@superonline.com
Abbreviations used: AZ — antizyme; AZP — monoaziridinylputrescine;
BOH — bohemine; BPH — benign prostate hyperplasia; CDKs — cyclin-
dependent kinases; CDKIs — CDK inhibitors; DAO — diamine oxidase;
DFMO – difluoromethylornithine; 5-FU — 5-fluorouracil; NAcSpd —
N1-acetylspermidine; NAcSpm — N1-acetylspermine; OC – olomou-
cine; ODC — ornithine decarboxylase; PAO — PA oxidase; PAs – poly-
amines; Pca — prostate cancer; PSA-5 — Prostate specific antigen;
Put — putrescine; Spd — spermidine; Spm — spermine; SSAT — spermi-
dine/spermine N1 — acetyltransferase.
Exp Oncol 2006
28, 3, 178–186
Reviews
Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September) 179
of DNA and induce BZ and BA transitions in certain
DNA sequences. PADNA interaction and resultant
structural changes in DNA may provide the molecular
basis by which PAs regulate cell proliferation. It was
proposed that major function of cationic PAs in the
process of cell division may be the stabilization of rep
lication complexes between DNA and nuclear matrix,
condensation and packaging of newly synthesized
DNA into nucleosomes and chromatin [23–25]. PAs
are also involved in stabilization of RNA [26–28], in
protein synthesis and endogenous modification of
NMDA receptor ion channel and voltagedependent
Ca+2 and K+ channels [29, 30].
PAs are involved in cell proliferation, embryonic
development, cell cycle. PA biosynthesis deficient
mutant cells do not grow if PAs are added to the culture
medium. Generally, resting cells contain low levels of
PAs but if these cells are stimulated to divide by trophic
factors, PAs levels increase. PA reduction causes an
aberrated cell cycle progression and accumulation of
cells in one of phases of cell cycle [31]. Inhibition of
PA biosynthesis also affects cell cycle related features
such as DNA sensitivity to DNAses [23]. Benign pros
tate hyperplasia (BPH) is very frequent age dependent
illness in men. According to Liu et al. [32] the increased
ODC activity and PA content in prostate tissue may
correlate with the pathogenesis of BPH. The high
level of ODC activity is induced by overexpression of
ODC mRNA. The contents of Put, Spd, and Spm in
BPH tissues were 2.2, 3.4, and 6.0 times higher than
those in normal tissues, respectively; ODC activity of
BPH tissue was 3.2 times higher than in normal tissue.
The expression level of ODC mRNA in BPH tissues was
higher than that in normal tissues.
PAs also affect cell differentiation. Janne et al. [33]
suggested that decrease of Spd/Spm ratio reflects
transition from proliferation into differentiation state.
Role of Polyamines in aPoPtosis
The number of cells in adult human body is steady
due the balance between cell proliferation and cell
loss. Controlled cell death is known as apoptosis or
programmed cell death. Apoptosis include oligonu
cleosomal DNA degradation, condensation of cyto
plasm and nuclei and formation of apoptotic bodies.
Changes in PA homeostasis (elevated PA accu
mulation) may lead to apoptosis. Moreover, induction
of ODC is an early event in the induction of apoptosis
[35]. Involvement of ODC in the process of cell death
becomes apparent from researches on neuronal cell
figure. The amount of PAs has two sources inside the cell. One of them is external PAs sources such as absorption from diet or
usage of deposit PA from red blood cells or synthesis. PA synthesis is regulated by ODC under the control of cMyc. The excess
amount of PAs is excreted via efflux mechanism after conversion with N1acetylespermine and N1acetylspermidine. Their involve
ment in signal transduction network is under control of cellular death and growth balance. PA may affect cell death by modulating
the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which triggers the activation of caspases and the induction of apoptosis. PAs may
also affect signal transduction pathways mediated by the nuclear transcription factorB (NFkB), mitogen activated protein kinase
(MAPK) family members and, perhaps, other kinases which modulate the expression of genes implicated in the control of cell growth
and cell death. The proposed hypothesis is NFkB may modulate both growth and death mechanism using PPARγ and polyamine
response element (PRE) and has dual effect. However, the manager molecule in this network is determined as ODC because of
cMyc relationship
180 Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September)
death induced by hypoglycemia, neurotoxic agents
and traumatic brain injury [36]. These studies revealed
a significant increase in ODC gene expression, protein
synthesis and Put levels. Numerous studies in different
cell systems have shown pronounced elevation of ODC
activity after induction of apoptosis [35]. The role of
ODC in apoptosis was studied by Packham and Cleve
land [37, 38] who showed that ODC is an important
mediator of cmycinduced apoptosis, and suppose
that cmyc induces ODCmediated apoptosis and
proliferation by different but overlapping pathways.
Both upregulation and downregulation of PA
levels may be associated with apoptotic events. For
example, treatment of HL60 cells with etoposide,
a classic inducer of apoptosis, resulted in early and
transient increase of ODC content, which may initiate
apoptosis, followed by its decrease, which would
sustain this process [40]. ODC induction and Spd ac
cumulation have been related to the progression of the
cell cycle until a checkpoint from which apoptosis is
triggered in the presence of cell deathinducing signals
or negative growth factors [35, 41].
The involvement of PAs in apoptosisrelated path
ways at the level of mitochondria has been investigated
in different cell models. Some research groups have
initially studied the effects of PAs on events directly
related to the activation of the caspases. PAs, par
ticularly Spm, can trigger the activation of caspases
in cellfree models of apoptosis and PAs can directly
induce the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria
and activate the death program [42].
The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria
may be modulated by Bcl2 family proteins (Bax and
Bid), which influence opening of mitochondrial perme
ability transition pores and the subsequent release of
cytochrome c into cytosol [43]. In intestinal cell line, PA
depletion antagonizes camptothecininduced apop
tosis by preventing translocation of the proapoptotic
Bcl2 family member Bax to mitochondria and inhibi
ting the release of cytochrome c [44]. Moreover, in
ODCoverproducing murine myeloma cells, accumula
tion of Put provokes apoptotic death that is inhibited by
DFMO and involves the release of cytochrome c from
mitochondria, followed by the activation of caspase
cascades [45]. On the other hand, in various lymphoid
cell lines, the complete depletion of PAs provoked
by the combined use of ODC and SAMDC inhibitors
causes the disruption of the mitochondrial membrane
potential, resulting in caspase activation and apoptotic
cell death [46]. A recent study [47] has shown that Spm
inhibits the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria
of the dexamethasonetreated thymocytes, but it does
not totally prevent the dexamethasoneinduced DNA
fragmentation.
Polyamines as biomaRkeRs
in PRostate CanCeR and taRGets
foR antiCanCeR theRaPy
The increasing awareness of the role of PAs in
cell behavior has attracted the attention to the PA as
biomarkers and potential targets in the treatment of
cancer and other diseases. In vitro and in vivo studies
have revealed that ODC activity and PAs metabolism
are fundamental for malignant transformation of
cells [15, 17–19]. In prostate adenocarcinoma, acute
lymphoblastic leukemia and brain tumors PAs and
their metabolic enzymes appear to be of diagnostic
value. Spermidine/spermine N1acetyltransferase
(SSAT) was shown to serve as a reliable biochemical
marker for proliferation of bladder epithelium [48, 49].
Recently PAs content was found to be a promising
biomarker for cervical malignancies [50].
Since PAs play important role in tumor cell growth,
interference in PA metabolism provides a possible
mean for chemotherapy of cancer. Different com
pounds inhibiting the activity of enzymes related to PA
metabolism have been described and their anticancer
properties have been analyzed [51–53]. However,
these compounds are active only in vitro, but not
in vivo. The reasons of the failure were determined as
follow: 1) rapid turnover of PA biosynthetic enzymes;
2) compensatory elevation of other PArelated en
zymes not targeted by inhibitor; 3) compensatory
increase of external uptake of PA; 4) compensatory
retroconversion of intracellular PA pool, because single
inhibitor cannot reduce all PA pools.
In recent years it has become obvious that struc
tural analogues of PAs can act as antineoplastic
agents. PA analogues downregulate the enzymes of
biosynthesis, deplete the PA pools and therefore inhibit
cell growth. So far, the most effective for cell growth
inhibition are PA analogues bis(ethyl)analogues of
Spm and bis(ethyl)analogues of Spd [54, 55]. Growth
inhibitory effects of these analogues have been estab
lished in a number of transformed cell lines [52], and
inhibition of ODC and SAMDC activities, depletion of
the PA pools and increase of SSAT activity upon their
action have been established. Currently, some of the
structural analogues of PAs are under Phase I or II of
clinical trials and show promising results.
Although the findings are based on an artificial
system (i.e. conditional overexpression of SSAT), there
are many pharmacological examples of SSAT induc
tion by the classes of drugs other than PA analogues
[56]. Anticancer drugs unrelated to PAs can also elicit
the significant increase of expression of SSAT gene.
Using cDNA gene profiling, Maxwell et al. [57] have
found that in MCF7 cells treated with 5fluorouracil,
SSAT gene expression is affected at the highest degree
among > 3000 genes studied. Similar results were ob
tained if the DNAalkylating platinum compounds, oxa
liplatin and cisplatin were applied [58]. Finally, SSAT
transgenic mice that are genetically predisposed to
develop prostate cancer (i. e. TRAMP mice) markedly
suppressed genitourinary tumors [59]. These findings
support the possibility that selective small molecule
inducers of SSAT may have therapeutic and/or preven
tive potential against prostate cancer.
In many developed countries, Pca is the second
leading cause of cancer related death among men.
Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September) 181
Radical surgery and radiotherapy are curative options
for Pca. Early diagnosis is pivotal to prolonged survival
and quality of life. Prostate specific antigen (PSA)
is the first widespread accepted biomarker for Pca.
However it’s use has many limitations: overdiagnosis
of clinically insignificant Pca will cause overtreatment,
including incontinence, impotence that are side effects
of radical surgery and radiotherapy, and will negatively
affect the patients’ quality of life; from other hand, PSA
screening fails to detect a small proportion of highly
aggressive Pca. Therefore new Pca biomarkers need
to be discovered [60].
The considerable number of patients is diagnosed
at a time when the disease already is widespreaded.
These patients ultimately require androgen ablation
therapy that means surgical or medical castration.
Androgen ablation induces an apoptosis in the andro
gendependent Pca cells [61], but it’s hardly ever
curative [62]. The main reason for the failure of andro
gen ablation is heterogeneity of Pca cells population.
Compounds active against androgenindependent
Pca cells are required.
Prostate tissue is characterized by the highest
concentrations of PAs. In rats, the content of PAs is
the highest in ventral, dorsal and lateral prostate, but
lower in coagulating glands and seminal vesicles [63],
and Spd is the dominant PA. In human body, ODC was
found in prostate fluid, seminal plasma and sperm [64,
65], and Spm is the dominant PA in prostate tissue.
It was shown that prostate PAs content is under the
control of androgens [63, 66, 67]. Upon castration
induced apoptosis of prostate epithelial cells, ODC
activity and PA levels decrease significantly, but SSAT
activity increases [35]. Regeneration of prostate tis
sue by androgens support correlates with a marked
increase of ODC activity and PAs level. It was reported
that ODC activity and ODC mRNA level are stimulated
by androgens treatment, and ODC activity is especially
high in the epithelial cells of the prostate [66]. In vitro
studies [68, 69] have revealed that androgen regula
tion of ODC is directly related to androgen receptor.
Inhibition of ODC activity by difluoromethylornithine
(DFMO) reduces the development of prostate and
retards testosteroneinduced regrowth of prostate in
castrated rats [70].
It is clear now that in prostate tissue ODC and PAs
are involved in cell proliferation and secretory activi
ties via an androgenregulated Spmbinding protein
[71, 72].
Functional importance of seminal PAs is not clear
still. Spm molecules are localized in the middle and top
parts of the acrosome and possibly alter sperm fertili
zation competence and the acrosome reaction [73]. In
sperm cells Spm may originate from endogenous PA
biosynthesis, because ODC activity is associated with
spermatogenesis [74]. Seminal PAs may also regulate
seminal clotting or prevention of bacterial growth in
urinary tract [75].
Monitoring of PAs and ODC content in prostate tis
sue may be useful for the diagnosis and prognosis of
prostate cancer. Researches on rat prostate derived
tumor cell lines demonstrated that ODC activity was
elevated in quickly growing cells [76]. Similar data were
obtained on human prostate cancer cell lines (PC3,
TSUprl, DU145 and JCA1) [35]. Malignant PC3 and
TSUprl prostate cell lines possess the high level of
PAs associated with high ODC and low SSAT activities
[35]. Moreover, significantly elevated ODC expression
on mRNA and protein level in tumor tissue compared
to the benign tissue of prostate was revealed [65, 77].
Graaf et al. [78] have shown correlation between Spm
level and degree of differentiation in prostate tumors,
and indicated that normal and benign hyperplasic
prostate tissues have high content of Spm whereas
in tissue of prostate carcinoma with metastases Spm
levels are reduced.
PAs or their acetylated forms are secreted by
cells, and these circulating molecules can be reused
by PArequiring cells. Moulinoux et al. [79] revealed
that circulating Spd and Spm are transported by red
blood cells (RBC), and RBC PA level correlates with
tumor development in tumorgraft model. Analysis of
PAs levels in Pca cell lines with different degrees of
differentiation has shown that lessdifferentiated cell
lines contained lower Spm concentrations. Similar
correlation between Spm levels and the degree of
differentiation of prostate tumors was established by
Shipper et al. [35] in the study of biopsy materials.
These authors also indicated that in normal and be
nign hyperplastic prostate tissues a high content of
Spm occurs, whereas in tumor tissue, especially in
prostate carcinoma with metastases, Spm levels are
reduced. Hence, a dramatic decrease of the prostate
Spm content could indicate a conversion of prostate
tissue from a benign to a malignant phenotype. In vitro
studies [80, 81] demonstrated differential sensitivity
of prostate tumor cell lines to Spm. Exposure of cells
to Spm induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in the
weakly metastatic AT2.1 cell line but not in the highly
metastatic AT3.1 cell line. We also have established
that total PA content was higher in highly metastatic
rat prostate cancer cell lines (MATLylu) than AT2 cell
line, which is low metastatic one (unpublished data).
A possible explanation these facts may be in the dif
ferent induction of antizyme in Spmsensitive and
Spminsensitive cells. In the Spminsensitive cells,
ODC antizyme levels were not upregulated, thereby
failing to inhibit and degrade ODC [82].
As it is mentioned above, PAs are important for
prostate cell growth and function, for this reason
interference with PA homeostasis offer a promising
target for chemotherapy of prostate cancer. Inhibitors
of PA biosynthesis and PA analogues can affect PA
homeostasis. Different compounds are able to inhibit
the PA biosynthetic enzymes activities [52].
DFMO is the most widely studied ODC inhibitor
causing depletion of Put and Spd pools without signifi
cant effect on Spm levels [83–85]. DFMO treatment
has remarkable inhibitory effects on cell growth of
cultured prostate cancer cells, and this inhibition may
182 Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September)
be reversed by the addition of PAs or their acetylated
derivatives in PC3, PC82 and androgenstimulated
LNCaP cells [85]. However, DFMO was ineffective
in vivo, perhaps due to the compensatory uptake of
PAs from extracellular sources [76, 86]. Another ODC
inhibitor, methylacetylenic putrescine (MAP) inhibited
the growth of PC3 and some other cell lines, and slow
ly growing cells were more sensitive to its action [87].
Also, in vitro inhibitory effect on ODC activity of the
naturally occurring garlic derivatives [88] and green
tea polyphenols were demonstrated [89].
Experimental studies showed that PA analogues
have significant antitumor activity in solid tumors.
(Table). The prostate tissue preferentially takes up Put
and this uptake can be enhanced by DFMO. Put ana
logues have chemotherapeutic potential, especially
in combination with DFMO. Monoaziridinylputrescine
(AZP) inhibited growth of PC3 human prostate cells,
while cotreatment with DFMO increased the growth
inhibitory effect [94].
Symmetrically substituted bis(ethyl) analogues
of Spm and Spd are highly effective in cell growth
inhibition [53]. Some of these analogues BE333,
BENSpm or DENSpm are assessed in clinical tests
[90, 91, 93, 95, 96]. BE333 has different effects on
cell growth and PA homeostasis in different prostate
carcinoma cells: androgen independent cells were
the most sensitive, whereas androgendependent
cells were insensitive. Generally, degree of cell growth
inhibition correlated with SSAT stimulation. BE4444
was more effective compared to BE333 in inhibiting
the growth of DU145, TsuPr1 and DuPro1 cells [90].
In all tumors treated with the BE4444, the levels of
Spd and Spm were shown to decrease whereas Put
level was not affected. The reason of the lack of PA
depletion in vivo is probably uptake of PAs via food
consumption.
Recently, the effect of a Spm analogue BIS has
been studied on DU145 and PC3 cells [92]. BIS
showed dosedependent cytotoxic effect on prostate
cancer cells in vitro and this effect was realized via
apoptotic pathway. Besides, combination of treat
ment of BIS with irradiation strikingly increased the
number of apoptotic cells. Therefore, application of
BIS results in increased radiosensitivity of human
prostate cancer
The key enzymes involved in the cell cycle ma
chinery belong to the group of homologous serine/
threonine protein kinases known as cyclindependent
kinases (CDKs), which typically contain cyclin as a
regulatory subunit. Up to date, nine CDKs have been
identified in human and animals [97]. These enzymes
preferentially phosphorylate lamins, vimentin, caldes
mon, and histon H1, which play a key role in cell divi
sion during the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, as well
as proteins RBs, E2Fs, DP1, RNApolymerase II, EF2
implicated in activation of the Sphasespecific genes
involved in G1/S boundary [98].
It is well known that there both ODC and PA con
centrations during the cell cycle are changed [99].
There is an early peak in ODC content at G1phase,
followed by an increase in PA content, and the se
cond increase during G2phase and prior to mitosis
[100]. Thus, both PAs and cyclin/CDKs show phased
changes throughout the cell cycle, but the interac
tion between these two sets of regulatory molecules
remains to be defined. One suggestion is that PAs
regulate cyclin degradation [101]. Intracellular PA
concentrations have been reported to determine both
up and downregulation of important cellular check
points within the cell cycle, and this may in part, explain
why their concentrations are controlled throughout the
cycle [102, 103].
The enzymatic activity of CDKs in normal somatic
cells is precisely regulated by several mechanisms.
The natural CDK inhibitors (CDKIs) play an important
role in this process [104]. Recently, natural peptide
CDK inhibitors have been shown to play an important
regulatory role in cell differentiation, proliferation,
senescence, and programmed cell death [105]. It
has also been demonstrated that the effects of these
endogenous inhibitors may be partly mimicked by
several different types of synthetic inhibitors including
butyrolactone I, flavopiridol, 2,6,9trisubstituted pu
rines such as olomoucine (OC), roscovitine, and pur
valanol, paullones, indirubins, and others [106–108].
These proteins bind to the cyclinCDK complex and
inhibit its activity. Consequently, the entry of the cell
into the cell cycle is blocked. Due to the fact that the
families of natural CDKIs or genes that control CDKIs
transcription (e. g., p53) belong to the most frequently
mutated proteins in cancer cells, the molecules that
could mimic their biological activities are attractive
candidates for anticancer treatment [109, 110].
Upon the study of plant hormones, cytokinins,
specific inhibitors of the CDKs were identified, in
particular 6benzylamino2(2hydroxyethylamino)
9methylpurine (OC). At micromolar concentrations
OC selectively blocks CDK1, CDK2 and CDK5 ki
nases [111]. OC does not exert an inhibitory effect
on the major cellular kinases such as cAMP and
cGMPdependent kinases, protein kinase C and Src
kinases, however, it is able to block cells at the G1/S
and G2/M boundaries [111]. OC has low cytotoxicity
in vitro [111]. Another purine derivative, roscovitine,
induces apoptosis under normal growth conditions.
Roscovitine is a novel substance with potent inhibitory
activity towards CDK1, high selectivity and antimitotic
activity [112]. It was revealed that OC and roscovitine
act as competitive inhibitors of in ATPbinding sites of
kinases. The study of specificity of these inhibitors has
shown that only the cell cycle regulating cdc2/cyclin B,
CDK2/cyclin A and CDK2/cyclin E kinases, the brain
CDK5/p25 kinase and ERK1 are inhibited by OC and
roscovitine. Structureactivity studies and analysis
of OC/CDK2 and roscovitine/CDK2 cocrystal struc
tures confirmed that OC and roscovitine bind in the
ATPbinding pocket of CDK2, but showed that the
purine rings of OC/roscovitine and ATP are located in
a totally different orientation. The antimitotic effects of
Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September) 183
OC and roscovitine were investigated in a large variety
of cellular models. The compounds inhibit both G1/S
and G2/M transitions [113, 114].
Recently new groups of CDKIs with high specifici
ty and efficacy have been synthesized [115]. They
are strongly cytotoxic toward tumor cell lines in vitro.
One of them, bohemine (BOH) and OC II were found
to be effective in vivo [116]. On the other hand, OC II
is the most active CDK1 inhibitor in vitro against tumor
cells [117].
During the experimental studies, Mad’arova et al.
[118] discovered that both BOH and OC were potent
inhibitors of cell growth and viability, especially for
androgen responsive cells; BOH was 2–3 times more
effective than OC toward human prostate cancer cell
lines. In our research, we estimated that treatment
with BOH or OC II inhibited in vitro cell growth of highly
metastatic (MATLylu) and low metastatic (AT2) rat
prostate cancer cell lines and caused drastic reduction
of Put, Spd and Spm levels (unpublished data).
In conclusion, PAs are promising biomarkers for
prostate cancer, and the compounds targeting their
metabolism should be studied for possible chemo
therapeutical application.
Table. In vitro effects of polyamine analogues on human
prostatic cancer cell lines [35]
Analogue DU-145 PC-3 LNCaP Refe-
rence
Apoptosis BE-3-3-3
BE-4-4-4-4
CPE-3-3-3
CHE-3-3-3
BIS
not observed
not observed
induced
induced
induced
not observed
data not
available
induced
induced
induced
induced
data not avail-
able
induced
induced
data not avail-
able
[91]
[92]
[91]
[91]
[93]
Polyamine
Pools
BE-3-3-3
BE-4-4-4-4
CPE-3-3-3
CHE-3-3-3
increased
decreased
decreased
not signifi-
cantly
affected
decreased
decreased
decreased
decreased
decreased
decreased
decreased
not signifi-
cantly
affected
[91]
[94]
[91]
[91]
ODC/
SAMDC
Activity
BE-3-3-3
CPE-3-3-3
CHE-3-3-3
decreased
not signifi-
cantly
affected
not signifi-
cantly
affected
decreased
not signifi-
cantly
affected
not signifi-
cantly
affected
data not avail-
able
not signifi-
cantly
affected
not signifi-
cantly
affected
[35]
[91]
[91]
SSAT
Activity
BE-3-3-3
CPE-3-3-3
increased
increased
increased
increased
increased
increased
[91]
[91]
RefeRenCes
1. Heby O. Role of polyamines in the control of cell proli-
feration and differentiation. Differentiation 1981; 19: 1–20.
2. Tabor CW, Tabor H. Polyamines. Ann Rev Biochem
1984; 53: 749–90.
3. Féray A, Hourmant A, Penot M, Caroff J, CannMoisan C.
Polyamines and morphogenesis. Effects of methylglyoxal-bis
(guanylhydrazone). Bot Acta 1994; 107: 18–21.
4. Pegg AE, McCann PP. Polyamine metabolism and
function. Am J Physiol 1982; 243: 212–21.
5. Sjoerdsma A, Schechter PJ. Chemotherapeutic impli-
cations of polyamine biosynthesis inhibition. Clin Pharmacol
Ther 1984; 35: 287–300.
6. Jänne J, Morris DR. Inhibition of S-adenosylmethioni-
ne decarboxylase and diamine oxidase activities by analogues of
methylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone) and their cellular uptake
during lymfocyte activation. Biochem J 1984; 218: 947–51.
7. Seiler N, Bolkenius FN, Knödgen B. The influence of
catabolic reactions on polyamine oxidase. Biochem J 1985;
225: 219–26.
8. Pegg AE. Recent advances in the biochemistry of poly-
amines in eukaryotes. Biochem J 1986; 234: 249–62.
9. Hölttä E. Oxidation of spermidine and spermine in
rat liver: purification and properties of polyamine oxidase.
Biochemistry 1977; 16: 91–100.
10. Pegg AE, Matsui I, Seely JE, Pritchard ML, Poso H. For-
mation of putrescine in rat liver. Med Biol 1981; 59: 327–33.
11. Matsui I, Wiegand L, Pegg AE. Properties of spermidine
N-acetyltransferase from livers of rats treated with carbon
tetrachloride and its role in the conversion of spermidine into
putrescine. J Biol Chem 1981; 256: 2454–9.
12. Morgan DML. Polyamine oxidases and oxidized poly-
amines. In: The Physiology of Polyamines. U. Bachrach &
Y.M. Heimer, eds. CRC Press: Boca Raton, 1989.
13. Binda C, Mattevi A, Edmondson DE. Structure function
relationships in flavoenzyme-dependent amine oxidations: a
comparison of polyamine oxidase and monoamine oxidase. J
Biol Chem 2002; 277: 23973–6.
14. Keskinege A, Elgun S, Yilmaz E. Possible implications
of arginase and diamine oxidase in prostate carcinoma. Cancer
Detect Prev 2001; 25: 76–9.
15. Auvinen M, Paasinen A, Andersson LC, Holtta E. Or-
nithine decarboxylase activity is critical for cell transformation.
Nature 1992; 360: 355–8.
16. Auvinen M, Laine A, PaasinenSohns A, Kangas A,
Kangas L, Saksela O, Andersson LC, Holtta E. Human or-
nithine decarboxylase-overproducing NIH3T3 cells induce
rapidly growing, highly vascularized tumors in nude mice.
Cancer Res 1997; 57: 3016–25.
17. O’Brien TG, Megosh LC, Gilliard G, Soler AP. Ornithine
decarboxylase overexpression is a sufficient condition for tumor
promotion in mouse skin. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 2630–7.
18. Shantz LM, Pegg AE. Ornithine decarboxylase in-
duction in transformation by H-Ras and RhoA. Cancer Res
1998; 58: 2748–53.
19. Tabib A, Bachrach U. Polyamines induce malignant
transformation in cultured NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. Int J Biochem
Cell Biol 1998; 30: 135–46.
20. Heby O, Persson L. Molecular genetics of polyamine syn-
thesis in eukaryotic cells. Trends Biochem Sci 1990; 15: 153–8.
21. Hayashi S, Murakami Y, Matsufuji S. Ornithine
decarboxylase antizyme: a novel type of regulatory protein.
Trends Biochem Sci 1996; 21: 27–30.
22. Murakami Y, Ichiba T, Matshufuji S, Hayashi S. Clo-
ning of antizyme inhibitor, a highly homologous protein to
ornithine decarboxylase. J Biol Chem 1996; 271: 3340–2.
23. Baeza I, Ibanez M, Wong C, Chavez P, Gariglio P,
Oro J. Possible prebiotic significance of polyamines in the con-
densation, protection, encapsulation, and biological properties
of DNA. Orig Life Evol Biosph 1991; 21: 225–42.
24. Matthews HR. Polyamines, chromatin structure and
transcription. Bioessays 1993; 15: 561–6.
25. Raspaud E, Chaperon I, Feforestier A, Livolant F.
Spermine-induced aggregation of DNA, nucleosome, and
chromatin. Biophys J 1999; 77: 1547–55.
184 Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September)
26. Bolton PH, Kearns DR. Effect of magnesium and poly-
amines on the structure of yeast tRNAPhe. Biochim Biophys
Acta 1977; 477: 10–9.
27. Heerschap A, Walters JA, Hilbers CW. Interactions
of some naturally occurring cations with phenylalanine and
initiator tRNA from yeast as reflected by their thermal stability.
Biophys Chem 1985; 22: 205–17.
28. Knapp G. Enzymatic approaches to probing of RNA
secondary and tertiary structure. Meth Enzymol 1989; 180:
110–7.
29. Park MH, Lee YB, Joe YA. Hypusine is essential for
eukaryotic cell proliferation. Biol Signals 1997; 6: 115–23.
30. Williams K. Modulation and block of ion channels: a
new biology of polyamines. Cell Signal 1997; 9: 1–13.
31. Heby O, Andersson G, Gray JW. Interference with S
and G2 phase progression by polyamine synthesis inhibitors.
Exp Cell Res 1978; 111: 461–4.
32. Liu X, Wang L, Lin Y, Teng Q, Zhao C, Hu H, Chui W.
Ornithine decarboxylase activity and its gene expression
are increased in benign hyperplastic prstate. Prostate 2000;
43: 83–7.
33. Jänne J, Pöso H, Raina A. Polyamines in rapid growth
and cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta 1978; 473: 241–93.
34. Fadeel B, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S. All along the
watchtower: on the regulation of apoptosis regulators. FASEB J
1999; 13: 1647–57.
35. Schipper RG, Penning LC, Verhofstad AAJ. Involve-
ment of polyamines in apoptosis. Facts and controversies:
effectors or protectors? Semin Cancer Biol 2000; 10: 55–68.
36. Bernstein HG, Müller M. The cellular localization of
the L-ornithine decarboxylase/polyamine system in normal
and diseased central nervous systems. Prog Neurobiol 1999;
57: 485–505.
37. Packham G, Cleveland JL. Ornithine decarboxylase is
a mediator of c-myc-induced apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 1994;
14: 5741–7.
38. Packham G, Porter CW, Cleveland JL. C-myc induces
apoptosis and cell cycle progression by separable, yet overlap-
ping, pathways. Oncogene 1996; 13: 461–9.
39. King KL, Cidlowski JA. Cell cycle regulation and apop-
tosis. Ann Rev Physiol 1998; 60: 601–17.
40. Wallace HM, Fraser AV, Hughes A. A perspective of
polyamine metabolism. Biochem J 2003; 376: 1–14.
41. Monti MG, Ghiaroni S, Barbieri D, Franceschi C, Mar
verti G, Morruzzi MS. 2-Deoxy-D-ribose-induced apoptosis in
HL-60 cells is associated with the cell cycle progression by sper-
midine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 257: 460–5.
42. Stefanelli C, Stanic I, Zini M, Bonavita F, Flamigni F,
Zambonin L, Landi L, Pignatti C, Guarnieri C, Caldarera CM.
Polyamines directly induce release of cytochrome c from heart
mitochondria. Biochem J 2000; 347: 875–80.
43. Tsujimoto Y, Shimizu S. Bcl-2 family: life-or-death
switch. FEBS Lett 2000; 466: 6–10.
44. Yuan Q, Ray RM, Johnson LR. Polyamine depletion
prevents camptothecin-induced apoptosis by inhibiting the
release of cytochrome c. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2002;
282: 1290–7.
45. Erez O, Goldstaub d, Friedman J, Kahana C. Putres-
cine activates oxidative stress dependent apoptotic death in
ornithine decarboxylase overproducing mouse myeloma cells.
Exp Cell Res 2002; 281: 148–56.
46. Nitta T, Igarashi K, Yamamoto N. Polyamine depletion
induces apoptosis through mitochondria-mediated pathway.
Exp Cell Res 2002; 276: 120–8.
47. Hegardt C, Andersson G, Oredsson SM. Spermine pre-
vents cytochrome c release in glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis
in mouse thymocytes. Cell Biol Int 2003; 27: 115–21.
48. Cipolla BG, Ziade J, Bansard JY, Moulinoux JP,
Staerman F, Quemener V,Lobel B, Guille F. Pretherapeutic
erythrocyte polyamine spermine levels discriminate high risk
relapsing patients with M1 prostate carcinoma. Cancer 1996;
78: 1055–65.
49. MatsuiYuasa I, Otani S, Yano Y, Takada N, Shiba
ta MA, Fukushima S. Spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltrans-
ferase, a new biochemical marker for epithelial proliferation
in rat bladder. Jpn J Cancer Res 1992; 83: 1037–40.
50. Nishioka K, Melgarejo AB, Lyon RR, Mitchell MF.
Polyamines as biomarkers of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.
J Cell Biochem Suppl 1995; 23: 87–95.
51. Porter CW, Regenass U, Bergeron RJ. Polyamine
inhibitors and analogues as potential anticancer agents. In:
Polyamines in the gastrointestinal tract. Dowling RH, Folsch
UR, Loser C, eds. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1992; 301–19.
52. Marton LJ, Pegg AE. Polyamines as targets for the-
rapeutic intervention. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1995; 35:
55–91.
53. Kramer DL. Polyamine inhibitors and analogues. In:
Polyamines in Cancer Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Approa-
ches. Nishioka K, ed. Austin, RG Landis, 1996; 151–89.
54. Casero RAJr, Ervin SJ, Celano P, Baylin SB,
Bergeron RJ. Differential response to treatment with the
bis(ethyl)polyamine analogues between human small cell lung
carcinoma and undifferentiated large cell lung carcinoma in
culture. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 639–43.
55. Basu HS, Marton LJ, Pellarin M, Deen DF,
McManis JS, Liu CZ, Bergeron RJ, Feurstein DG. Design
and testing of novel cytotoxic polyamine analogues. Cancer
Res 1994; 54: 6210–4.
56. Seiler N. Functions of polyamine acetylation. Can J
Physiol Pharmacol 1987; 65: 2024–35.
57. Maxwell PJ, Longley DB, Latif T, Boyer J, Allen W,
Lynch M, McDermott U, Harkin DP, Allegra CJ, Johnston PG.
Identification of 5-fluorouracil-inducible target genes using
cDNA microarray profiling. Cancer Res 2003; 63: 4602–6.
58. Kee K, Vujcic S, Merali S, Diegelman P, Kisiel N,
Powell CT, Kramer DL, Porter CW. Metabolic and antipro-
liferative consequences of activated polyamine catabolism
in LNCaP prostate carcinoma cells. J Biol Chem 2004; 26:
27050–8.
59. Greenberg NM, DeMayo MJ, Medina D, Tilley WD,
Aspinall JO, Cunha GR, Donjacour AA, Matusik RS, Ro
sen JM. Prostate cancer in a transgenic mouse. Proc Natl
Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 3439–43.
60. Hessels D, Rittenhouse HG, Schalken JA. Molecu-
lar diagnostics in prostate cancer. EUA Update Series 2005;
3: 200–13.
61. Kyprianou N, English HF, Isaacs JT. Programmed
cell death during regression of PC-82 human prostate cancer
following androgen ablation. Cancer Res 1990; 50: 3748–53.
62. Lepor H, Ross A, Walsh PC. The influence of hormonal
therapy on survival of men with advanced prostatic cancer. J
Urol 1982; 128: 335–40.
63. Fjosne HE, Ostensen MA, Haarstad H, Sunder A. And-
rogen regulation of polyamine synthesis in seminal vesicle and
in different lobes of the rat prostate. Prostate 1990; 17: 1–11.
64. Janne J, Holtta E, Haaranen P, Elfving K. Polyamines
and polyamine-metabolizing enzyme activities in human
semen. Clin Chim Acta 1973; 48: 393–401.
Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September) 185
65. Mohan RR, Challa A, Gupta S, Bostwick DG, Ahmad N,
Agarwal R, Marengo SR, Amini SB, Paras F, MacLennan GT,
Resnick MI, Mukhtar H. Overexpression of ornithine decarb-
oxylase in prostate cancer and prostatic fluid in humans. Clin
Cancer Res 1999; 5: 143–7.
66. Pegg AE, Lockwood DH, Williams AH. Concentrations
of putrescine and polyamines and their enzymic synthesis
during androgen-induced prostatic growth. Biochem J 1970;
117: 17–31.
67. Fjosne HE, Strand H, Sunde A. Dose-dependent in-
duction of ornithine decarboxylase and S-adenosylmethionine
decarboxylase activity by testosterone in the accessory sex
organs of male rats. Prostate 1992; 21: 239–45.
68. Crozat A, Palvimo JJ, Julkunen M, Janne OA. Com-
parison of androgen regulation of ornithine decarboxylase
and S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase gene expression in
rodent kidney and accessory sex organs. Endocrinology 1992;
130: 1131–44.
69. Betts AM, Waite I, Neal DE, Robson CN. Androgen
regulation of ornithine decarboxylase in human prostatic
cells identified using differential display. FEBS Lett 1997;
405: 328–32.
70. Torring N, VinterJensen L, Pedersen SB, Sorensen FB,
Flyvbjerg A, Nexo E. Systemic administration of insulin-like
growth factor I (IGF-I) causes growth of the rat prostate. J
Urol 1997; 158: 222–7.
71. Chang CS, Saltzman AG, Hiipakka RA, Huang IY,
Liao SS. Prostatic spermine-binding protein. Cloning and
nucleotide sequence of cDNA, amino acid sequence, and
androgenic control of mRNA level. J Biol Chem 1987; 262:
2826–31.
72. Goueli SA, Davis AT, Hiipakka RA, Liao SS, Ahmed K.
Polyamine-stimulated phosphorylation of prostatic spermine-
binding protein is mediated only by cyclic AMP-independent
protein kinases. Biochem J 1985; 230: 293–302.
73. Rubinstein S, Breitbart H. Cellular localization of po-
lyamines: cytochemical and ultrastructural methods providing
new clues to polyamine function in ram spermatozoa. Biol
Cell 1994; 81: 177–83.
74. Hakovirta H, Keiski A, Toppari S, Halmeryto M, Ab
honen L, Janne J, Parvinen M. Polyamines and regulation of
spermatogenesis: selective stimulation of late spermatogonia in
transgenic mice overexpressing the human ornithine decarb-
oxylase gene. Mol Endocrinol 1993; 7: 1430–6.
75. Romijn JC. Polyamines and transglutaminase actions.
Andrologia 1990; 1: 83–91.
76. Heston WD, Kadman D, Lazan DW, Fair WR. Co-
penhagen rat prostatic tumor ornithine decarboxylase activity
(ODC) and the effect of the ODC inhibitor alpha-difluoromet-
hylornithine. Prostate 1982; 3: 383–9.
77. Saverio B, Pierpaola D, Serenella A, Casare C, Bru
no M, Auro T, Arnaldo C. Tumor progression is accompanied
by significant changes in the levels of expression of polyamine
metabolism regulatory genes and clusterin (sulfated glyco-
protein 2) in human prostate cancer specimens. Cancer Res
2000; 60: 28–34.
78. Graaf M,Schipper RG, Oosterhof GO, Schalken JA,
Verhofstad AA, Heerschap A. Proton MRS of prostatic tissue
focused on the identification of spermine: a possible biomarker
of malignant behavior in prostate cancer. Magn Reson Mater
Biol Phys Med 2000; 10: 153–9.
79. Moulinoux JP, Quemener V, Delcros JG, Cipolla B.
Circulating polyamines as biological markers for cancer. In:
Polyamines in Cancer Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Approa-
ches Nishioka K, ed. Austin: RG Landis, 1996; 233–49.
80. Smith RC, Litwin MS, Lu Y, Zetter BR. Identification
of an endogenous inhibitor of prostatic carcinoma cell growth.
Nat Med 1995; 1: 1040–5.
81. Koike C, Chao DT, Zetter BR. Sensitivity to polyamine-
induced growth arrest correlates with antizyme induction in
prostate carcinoma cells. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 6109–12.
82. Iwata S, Sato Y, Asada M, Takagi M, Tsujimoto A, Ina
ba T, Yamada T, Sakamoto S, Yata J, Shimogori T, Igarashi K,
Mizutani S. Anti-tumor activity of antizyme which targets the
ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) required for cell growth and
transformation. Oncogene 1999; 18: 165–72.
83. Romijn JC. Polyamine requirement of prostate cancer
cell proliferation. In: Molecular and cellular biology of prostate
cancer. Karr JP, Coffey DS, Smith RG, Tindall DJ, ed. New
York: Plenum Press, 1991; 103–14.
84. Messing EM, Love RR, Tutsch KD, Verma AK,
Douglas J, Pomplun M, Simsiman R, Wilding G. Lowdose
difluoromethylornithine and polyamine levels in human pro-
state tissue. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91: 1416–7.
85. Meyskens FLJ, Gerner EW. Development of difluo-
romethylornithine (DFMO) as a chemoprevention agent. Clin
Cancer Res 1999; 5: 945–51.
86. Dunzendorfer U, Releyea N, Whitmore WF, Fogh J,
Balis ME. Some effects of inhibitors of polyamine biosynthesis
on experimental prostatic cancer. Drug Res 1984; 34: 36–9.
87. Palyi I, Kremmer T, Kalnay A, Turi G, Mihalik R, Benc
sik K, Boldizsar M. Effects of methylacetylenic putrescine, an
ornithine decarboxylase inhibitor and potential novel antican-
cer agent, on human and mouse cancer cell lines. Anticancer
Drugs 1999; 10: 103–11.
88. Pinto JT, Qiao C, Xing J, Rivlin RS, Protomastro ML,
Weissler M, Tao Y, Thaler H, Heston WD. Effects of garlic
thioallyl derivatives on growth, glutathione concentration,
and polyamine formation of human prostate carcinoma cells
in culture. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66: 398–405.
89. Gupta S, Ahmad N, Mohan RR, Husan MM,
Mukhtar H. Prostate cancer chemoprevention by green tea: in
vitro and in vivo inhibition of testosterone-mediated induction
of ornithine decarboxylase. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 2115–20.
90. McCloskey DE, Woster PM, Casero RA, David
son NE. Effects of the polyamine analogues N1-ethyl-N11-
((cyclopropyl)methyl)-4,8-diazaundecane and N1-ethylN-11-
((cycloheptyl)methyl)-4,8-diazaundecane in human prostate
cancer cells. Clin Cancer Res 2000; 6: 17–23.
91. Zagaja GP, Shrivastav M, Fleig MJ, Marton LS, Rin
kerSchaeffer CW, Dolan ME. Effects of polyamine analogues
on prostatic adenoca adenocarcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo.
Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1998; 41: 505–12.
92. Eiseman JL, Roger FA, Guo Y, Kauffman S, Sentz DL,
Klinger MF, Callery PS, Kyprianou N. Tumor targeted apoptosis
by a novel spermine analogue, 1,12-diaziridinyl-4,9-diazadodeca-
ne, results in therapeutic efficacy and enhanced radiosensitivity of
human prostate cancer. Cancer Res 1998; 58: 4864–70.
93. Jeffers L, Church D, Basu H, Marton L, Wilding G.
Effects of the polyamine analogues BE-4-4-4-4, BE-3-7-3,
and BE-3-3-3 on the proliferation of three prostate cancer cell
lines. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1997; 40: 172–9.
94. Heston WD, Yang CR, Pliner L, Russo P, Covey DF.
Cytotoxic activity of a polyamine analogue, monoaziridinyl-
putrescine, against the PC-3 human prostatic carcinoma cell
line. Cancer Res 1987; 47: 3627–31.
95. McCloskey DE, Yang J, Woster PM, Davidson NE, Case
ro RA. Polyamine analogue induction of programmed cell death
in human lung tumor cells. Clin Cancer Res 1996; 2: 441–6.
186 Experimental Oncology 28, 178–186, 2006 (September)
96. Mi Z, Kramer DL, Miller JT, Bergeron RJ, Bernacki R,
Porter CW. Human prostatic carcinoma cell lines display alte-
red regulation of polyamine transport in response to polyamine
analogues and inhibitors. Prostate 1998; 34: 51–60.
97. Pestell RG, Albanese C, Reutens AT, Segall JE, Lee RJ,
Arnold A. The cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors
in hormonal regulation of proliferation and differentiation.
Endocrin Rev 1999; 20: 501–34.
98. Morgan DO,Fisher RP, Espinoza FH, Farrell A,
Nourse J, Chamberlin H, Jin P. Control of eukaryotic cell cycle
progression by phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases.
Cancer J Sci Am 1998; 1: 77–83.
99. Macrae M, Plasterk RH, Coffino P. The ornithine de-
carboxylase gene of Caenorhabditis elegans: cloning, mapping
and mutagenesis. Genetics 1995; 140: 517–25.
100. Macrae M, Kramer DL, Coffino P. Developmental
effect of polyamine depletion in Caenorhabditis elegans. Bio-
chem J 1998; 333: 309–15.
101. Nishimura K, Nakatsu F, Kashiwagi K, Ohno H,
Saito T, Igarashi K. Essential role of S-adenosylmethionine
decarboxylase in mouse embryonic development. Genes Cells
2002; 7: 41–7.
102. Persson K, Holm I, Heby O. Cloning and sequencing
of an intronless mouse S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase
gene coding for a functional enzyme strongly expressed in the
liver. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 5642–8.
103. Bergeron RJ, Weimar WR, Müller R, Zimmerman OC,
McCosar HB, Yao H, Smith RE. Effect of polyamine ana-
logues on hypusine content in JURKAT T-cells. J Med Chem
1998; 41: 3901–8.
104. Sherr CJ, Roberts JM. CDK inhibitors: positive
and negative regulators of G1-phase progression. Genes Dev
1999; 13: 1501–12.
105. Chellappan SP, Giordano A, Fisher PB. Role of
cyclin-dependent kinases and their inhibitors in cellular
differentiation and development, in cyclin dependent kinase
(CDK) inhibitors. Vogt PK, Reed SI, eds. Springer-Verlag:
Berlin, 1998; 57–103.
106. Gray N, Detivaud L, Meijer L. ATP-site directed
inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases. Curr Med Chem 1999;
6: 859–75.
107. Meijer L, Leclerc S, Leost M. Properties and poten-
tial-applications of chemical inhibitors of cyclin-dependent
kinases. Pharmacol Ther 1999; 82: 279–84.
108. Sielecki TM, Boylan JF, Benfield PA, Trainor GL.
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors: useful targets in cell cycle
regulation. J Med Chem 2000; 43: 1–18.
109. Amanatullah DF, Reutens B, Zafonte B, Fu M,
Mani S, Pestell RG. Cell-cycle dysregulation and the mo-
lecular mechanisms of prostate cancer. Front Biosci 2000;
5: 372–90.
110. Reutens AT, Pestell RG. Royal Australian College
of Physicians. J. Fellowship Affairs, Countinuing Education
Series, Sydney, 1997; 4–13.
111. Vesely J, Havlicek L, Strnad M, Blow JJ, Donella
Deana A, Pinna L, Letham DS, Kato J, Detivaud L, Leclerc S.
Inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases by purine analogues.
Eur J Biochem 1994; 224: 771–86.
112. Meijer L, Borgne A, Mulner O, Chong JP, Blow JJ,
Inagaki N, Inagaki M, Delcros JG, Moulinoux JP. Biochemi-
cal and cellular effects of roscovitine, a potent and selective
inhibitor of the cyclin-dependent kinases cdc2, cdk2 and cdk5.
Eur J Biochem 1997; 243: 527–36.
113. Meijer L. Chemical inhibitors of cyclin-dependent
kinases. Tren Cell Biol 1996; 6: 393–7.
114. Meijer L, Kim SH. Chemical inhibitors of cyclin-de-
pendent kinases. Meth Enzymol: 1997; 283: 113–28.
115. Havlicek L, Hanus J, Vesely J, Leclerc S, Meijer L,
Shaw G, Strnad M. Cytokinin-derived cyclin-dependent kinase
inhibitors: synthesis and cdc2 inhibitory activity of olomoucine
and related compounds. J Med Chem 1997; 40: 408–12.
116. Hajduch M, Havlieek L, Vesely J, Novotny R, Mihal V,
Strnad M. Synthetic cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors. New
generation of potent anti-cancer drugs. Adv Exp Med Biol
1999; 457: 341–53.
117. Krystof V, Lenobel R, Havlícek L, Kuzma M, Strnad M.
Synthesis and biological activity of olomoucine II. Bio Med
Chem Lett 2002; 12: 3283–6.
118. Mad’arova J, Lukesova M, Hlobilkova A, Strnad M,
Vojtesek B, Lenobel R, Hajduch M, Murray PG, Perera S,
Kolar Z. Synthetic inhibitors of CDKs induce different respon-
ses in aandrogen sensitive and androgen insensitive prostatic
cancer cell lines. Mol Path 2002; 55: 227–34.
полиамины и рак предстательной железы
Во многих развитых странах рак предстательной железы занимает первое место как причина смертности вследствие
онкологических заболеваний. Ткань предстательной железы характеризуется наиболее высоким уровнем содержания
полиаминов в сравнении с другими органами человека, причем в ткани карциномы простаты их содержание еще выше. Эти
биомолекулы синтезируются эпителиальными клетками предстательной железы и принимают участие во многих биохимических
процессах, включая пролиферацию клеток, регуляцию клеточного цикла и синтез белков. В обзоре обсуждаются функции
полиаминов в клетке, их участие в процессах апоптоза и потенциальная роль в качестве биомаркеров при раке предстательной
железы. Кроме того, приведены новые данные о разработке препаратов, в частности ингибитора циклинзависимой киназы,
предназначенных для лечения рака предстательной железы.
Ключевые слова: рак предстательной железы, полиамины, ингибитор CDK, оломуцин, богемин, росковитин.
Copyright © Experimental Oncology, 2006
|