Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1
Problems of impact of electromagnetic high-power pulses generated at nuclear explosion or by means of special equipment intended specially for damage of electronic equipment, in particular, digital protective relays and automatic systems, along with ways of protection against these impacts are consi...
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Інститут технічних проблем магнетизму НАН України
2011
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irk-123456789-1435672018-11-06T01:23:25Z Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 Gurevich, V.L. Електричні машини та апарати Problems of impact of electromagnetic high-power pulses generated at nuclear explosion or by means of special equipment intended specially for damage of electronic equipment, in particular, digital protective relays and automatic systems, along with ways of protection against these impacts are considered. 2011 Article Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 / V.L. Gurevich // Електротехніка і електромеханіка. — 2011. — № 5. — С. 23-28. — Бібліогр.: 34 назв. — рос. 2074-272X http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/143567 621.316.925 ru Електротехніка і електромеханіка Інститут технічних проблем магнетизму НАН України |
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Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
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Електричні машини та апарати Електричні машини та апарати |
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Електричні машини та апарати Електричні машини та апарати Gurevich, V.L. Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 Електротехніка і електромеханіка |
| description |
Problems of impact of electromagnetic high-power pulses generated at nuclear explosion or by means of special equipment intended specially for damage of electronic equipment, in particular, digital protective relays and automatic systems, along with ways of protection against these impacts are considered. |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Gurevich, V.L. |
| author_facet |
Gurevich, V.L. |
| author_sort |
Gurevich, V.L. |
| title |
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 |
| title_short |
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 |
| title_full |
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 |
| title_fullStr |
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 |
| title_sort |
stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. part 1 |
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Інститут технічних проблем магнетизму НАН України |
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2011 |
| topic_facet |
Електричні машини та апарати |
| url |
http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/143567 |
| citation_txt |
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic impacts. Part 1 / V.L. Gurevich // Електротехніка і електромеханіка. — 2011. — № 5. — С. 23-28. — Бібліогр.: 34 назв. — рос. |
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Електротехніка і електромеханіка |
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| fulltext |
ISSN 2074-272X. . 2011. 5 23
621.316.925
If a man takes no thought about what is distant,
he will find sorrow near at hand.
/Confucius/
V.I. Gurevich
STABILITY OF MICROPROCESSOR RELAY PROTECTION
AND AUTOMATION SYSTEMS AGAINST INTENTIONAL DESTRUCTIVE
ELECTROMAGNETIC IMPACTS. PART 1
, -
,
, ,
.
Problems of impact of the electromagnetic high-power pulses generated at nuclear explosion or by means of the special equip-
ment, intended specially for damage of the electronic equipment, in particular digital protective relays and automatic systems, and
also ways of protection from these impacts are considered
1. CHALLENGES OF MODERN POWER INDUSTRY:
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
For decades, the problems of EMC have been the
prerogative of specialists in electronics, radio engineering
and communications. Suddenly, over the last 10-15 years,
this problem has become critical for the power industry.
Of course, high electromagnetic fields have always ex-
isted at electric power facilities; however, electrome-
chanical devices, which have been applied for decades in
automatics, control and relay protection, were not ex-
posed to electromagnetic fields too much and so no sig-
nificant EMC problems were encountered. But in the last
two decades there has been a sharp change-over from
electromechanical relay protection devices to microproc-
essor-based (MPD) ones and automation. Moreover, the
change-over has included both the construction of new
substations and power plants and replacing old electrome-
chanical protection relays (EMPR) at the old substations,
built in those days when nobody assumed using micro-
processor technologies, with the up-to-date MPDs. The
latter have proved to be very sensitive to electromagnetic
interference coming "out of thin air", penetrating through
operating power circuits, voltage circuits and current
transformers. Some malfunctions of MPD were caused by
mobile phones [1] and similar types of equipment. There
have been other cases, such as malfunctions of micro-
processor-based devices at the operating capacities of the
Mosenergo, Ochakovskaya and Zubovskaya substations.
The operating algorithm of protection was affected by
lightning, excavators working nearby, electric welding
and other types of interference. The Lipetsk substation
startup was postponed for six months due to faults of mi-
croprocessor-based devices while they spent nearly $1.5
million for the MPDs. As a result, the substation was
commissioned using a set of conventional defenses [2]. In
practice, a shortcut on the 110 kV side can cause protec-
tion failures on the 330 kV side, and interference during
switching of the same voltage rating penetrated inputs
(through the auxiliary circuits) of the relay protection
apparatus operating under the other voltage rating [3].
According to Mosenergo, faults due to improper operation
of relay protection amount to 10 % out of total number of
malfunctions, and basically refer only to microelectronic-
based and microprocessor-based relays [4]. Enabling
SIEMENS MP protection at CHP-12 of Mosenergo,
OAO, designed by Atomenergoproekt Research Institute,
is the most obvious example of such problems, as EMC
requirements were not considered in the design at all. Due
to interferences there were more than 400 fault data sig-
nals detected at discrete and analogue inputs of MPD
.during the August-December of 1999 alone [4]. Also, it
should be kept in mind that the cost of each MPD fault is
10 times higher than the cost of an electromechanical re-
lay fault because of the high number of functions concen-
trated in each MPD. Such a high percentage of malfunc-
tions due to insufficient EMC results from the fact that the
MPD interference sensitivity is much higher than that of
traditional electromechanical protection. For example,
according to [4] when an electromechanical relay opera-
tion can be affected by the energy of 10-3 joule, the energy
of only 10-7 joule causes the malfunction of the micro-
chips. The difference is about 4 orders of magnitude, or
10000 times.
The level of damage depends on the insensitivity of
each circuit component and the energy of the powerful in-
terference as a whole, which can be absorbed into the cir-
cuit without the appearance of any defect or failure. For
example, although the switching noise caused by the induc-
tive load with an amplitude of 500V is a twofold voltage
surge, it is unlikely to lead to the failure of an electromag-
netic relay with a 230V AC coil due to its insensitivity to
this kind of interference and its short duration (it lasts only
several microseconds). The situation is different if the chip
is powered from a 5VDC source. The impulse interference
with an amplitude of 500V is hundredfold higher than the
supply voltage of the electronic component and leads to the
inevitable failure and the subsequent destruction of the de-
vice. Surge resistance of the chips is several orders of mag-
nitude lower than that of the electromagnetic relays [5].
Long-term statistics confirms that the number of such dam-
ages doubles every three to four years [5]. This statistic is
in good agreement with the so-called Moore’s law [6] who
in 1965 showed that the number of semiconductor compo-
nents in microchips doubles roughly every two years and
this trend has remained valid for many years. If some ten
years ago, the so-called transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
chip contained 10-20 elements per square millimeter, and
24 ISSN 2074-272X. . 2011. 5
had a typical supply voltage of 5V, now the popular chip
can contain nearly a hundred of CMOS (Complementary
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) transistors on every square
millimeter of the surface and has supply voltage of only 1.2
V. The up-to-date solid state technologies, for example,
SOS (Silicon-On-Sapphire), raise the number up to 500
elements per square millimeter of the surface [7]. It is ob-
vious that such chips would require even lower supply
voltage and it is even more obvious that such improved
microelectronics integrity reduces insensitivity of its com-
ponents to high voltage surge due to the reduced distance
between electroconductive elements, lower thickness of
insulating layers and reduced operating voltage of semi-
conductor elements.
Recent trends of technological evolution and ever-
growing electromagnetic vulnerability of national infra-
structures (power and water supply, communications, etc)
have come under military consideration long since. Mili-
tary research centers of almost all developed nations have
carried out intensive research and development on special
weapons capable of destroying electronic equipment.
Mass media have published dozens of articles discussing
methods for increasing efficiency of electromagnetic ac-
tions aimed at destroying electronic equipment [8-12].
High-altitude nuclear explosions have an extremely
high destructive effect. An explosion at an altitude of
200-300 km wouldn’t have any influence on humans and
would escape detection while the resultant electromagnetic
pulse (rather a range of pulses with different characteris-
tics) would cause a catastrophe for electronics and com-
puters of the whole country (see Table 1). The electric
power industry can suffer heavily due to long mileage of
overhead electric lines acting as giant antennas absorbing
electromagnetic pulse energy over a large territory and de-
livering it directly to the power stations and substations
apparatus. Considering the special hazard of such an explo-
sion to the power energy industry, the International Electro-
technical Commission (IEC) developed a series of specific
standards detailing methods for testing electric power lines
and other power equipment in order to evaluate their resis-
tance to high-altitude nuclear explosions [13-31].
If the recent tendency (i.e., "Smart Grid" concept)
will be widely implemented in power industry, even a
single high-altitude nuclear explosion will immediately
kill all national power industry, as shown in [32], which
makes it especially attractive to warring parties.
2. CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
INTENTIONAL DESTRUCTIVE
ELECTROMAGNETIC IMPACTS
English-language publications call the intentional
destructive electromagnetic impacts as "High Power Elec-
tromagnetic Threats (HPEM)" divided into two types:
"High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP)" and "In-
tentional Electromagnetic Interference (IEMI)".
HEMP is a very powerful electromagnetic pulse re-
sulting from a high-altitude nuclear explosion. It has long
been known that powerful electromagnetic pulse follow-
ing a nuclear explosion is one of the damage effects of
such explosion. Theoretical studies on X-ray radiation
effects conducted by Arthur Compton, an American sci-
entist specializing in theoretical physics, in 1922 (in 1927
he was awarded with Nobel Prize for this finding) showed
that a nuclear explosion is always followed by electro-
magnetic emission. At that time this effect was neglected
and it was noticed only after the first nuclear weapon test
explosions. In [33] it is described as follows: At the end
of June 1946 a series of nuclear detonation tests was con-
ducted under the codename of Operation Crossroads at
Bikini Atoll (Marshall Islands). The purpose was to ex-
plore damage effects of nuclear weapons. Test explosions
revealed a new physical phenomenon – generation of
powerful electromagnetic pulses (EMP) which immedi-
ately became of high interest. The highest EMP followed
high-altitude explosions. In the summer of 1958 a series
of high-altitude nuclear explosions was conducted. The
first series of explosions, under the codename of Opera-
tion Hardtack, was conducted above the Pacific Ocean
near Johnston Island. The series consisted with two mega-
ton-range detonations: Tack – at an altitude of 77 km and
Orange - at an altitude of 43 km. In 1962 high-altitude
explosions were continued: a 1,4 megaton warhead was
detonated at a 450 km altitude under the codename of
Starfish Prime. The USSR also conducted a series of test
explosions in 1961-1962 aimed to evaluate the impact of
high-altitude explosions (180-300 km) to antiballistic
missile defense apparatuses. The tests revealed powerful
EPM with high damage effects to widely separated elec-
tronics, communications and power lines as well as to
radio stations and radars.
The relationship of the electronics effective damage
area and altitude of a 10 megaton explosion is shown in
the following table.
Table 1
Effective damage area in dependence
with nuclear explosion altitude
Altitude of
explosion, km
Approximate diameter of damage
area, km
40
50
100
200
300
400
1424
1592
2.242
3.152
3.836
4.402
According to IEC there are three components of
HEMP: E1, E2 and E3.
E1 – is the "fastest" and "shortest" component of
HEMP resulting from a powerful stream of high-energy
Compton electrons (product of the interaction of -
quantum of the initial radiation of the nuclear explosion
with atoms of the atmosphere) drifting in the geomagnetic
field with a velocity close to the speed of light. This inter-
action between very fast-moving electrons and magnetic
field generates a pulse of electromagnetic energy focused
by geomagnetic field and oriented to the Earth from the
high-altitude. The pulse typically rises to its peak value in
about 5 nanoseconds and the magnitude of this pulse typi-
cally decays to half of its peak value within 200 nanosec-
onds. By the IEC definition, this E1 pulse is fully ended at
one microsecond (1000 nanoseconds).
E1 results from the most intensive electromagnetic
field causing very high voltages in electric circuit and cre-
ates impulse voltages up to 50 kV/m with a power density
ISSN 2074-272X. . 2011. 5 25
of 6.6 MW per square meter at middle latitudes near to
ground-level. E1 causes the most damage to the electronics
due to the power surge and electrical breakdown of p-n-
transitions of semiconductors and isolation. Conventional
arresters ensuring protection against atmospheric power
surges sometimes are not fast enough to respond in a timely
fashion and protect equipment from E1, while the power
they dissipate can be inadequate for absorbing energy of
the 1 pulse component which results in destruction of
such arresters.
E2 – is the intermediate (steepness and time length)
component of EMP which according to IEC definition can
last from 100 microseconds to 1 millisecond. The E2
component of the pulse has much resemblance to the elec-
tromagnetic pulses produced by nearby lightning. Field
gradient can reach 100 kV/m. Because of the similarities
to lightning-caused pulses and the widespread use of
lightning protection technology, the E2 pulse is generally
considered to be the easiest to protect against. However,
the combined impact of 1 and 2 components makes
other problem, as while 1 destroys protection elements
2 penetrates the equipment unchecked.
The E3 component is very different from the other
two major components of nuclear EMP. It is a very slow
pulse, lasting tens to hundreds of seconds, that is caused by
the nuclear detonation heaving the Earth's magnetic field
out of the way, followed by the restoration of the magnetic
field to its natural place. The E3 component is similar to a
geomagnetic storm caused by a very severe solar flare.
Gradient of induced field can reach 1V/km. Like a geo-
magnetic storm, E3 can produce significant geomagnetic
induced currents in long electrical conductors, including
long power lines, which can then penetrate power line
transformers with following saturation, impedance falling-
off and increasing of currents until the coils blow-out.
Since the 80’s of past century, a number of countries
have started intensive development of so called "Super
EMP" – nuclear charge with amplified electromagnetic
emission. The studies have mainly focused on two direc-
tions: wrapping the charge in a casing of a substance that
emits high-energy –radiation under a neutron exposure to
a nuclear explosion as well as focusing –radiation. Ac-
cording to experts Super EMP will allow creating a field
with a gradient of hundreds and thousands of kilovolts per
meter near the Earth’s surface. Moreover, the military
makes no secret that the main targets for such EMP weapon
in future battles will be the government and military ad-
ministrations as well as national infrastructures, including
power, water supply systems and communications.
However, the nuclear explosion is not the only
source of powerful EMP. Today, the non-nuclear source
of EMP can be transported with conventional and high-
precision means of delivery.
Thus, the problems of defense against EMP impact
will be the concern of experts despite the results of nu-
clear disarmament negotiations.
IEMI – is the second type of non-nuclear deliberate
destructive EM impact. First theories on creation of non-
nuclear shockwave emitters of superpower EMP (SWE)
were formulated in the early 50’s of past century by nu-
clear physicist Andrei Sakharov during his work on the
nuclear weapon.
Fig. 1. 1 – electromagnetic cavity; 2 – cut; 3 – coil with
non-firing current; 4 – vectored electromagnetic emission;
5 – explosive substance; 6 – switchboard; 7 – energy accumulator
(condenser); 8 – standing wave; 9- flying explosion products
Getting primary neutrons initiating the fission proc-
ess in a nuclear weapon required a superpower source of
current pulse. Sakharov’s generator represented a ring of
explosive substance surrounding the copper coil. The set
simultaneously exploded detonators initiating an axipetal
detonation. At the moment of demolition, there was a
discharge of power condenser with the current generating
magnetic field inside the coil. Enormous pressure of the
shock-wave (approximately one million atmospheres)
squashed and bridged the windings of the coil which was
transformed into a tube enclosing the field inside the coil.
The current loop collapsed under a speed of several kilo-
meters per second depending on the type of explosion. As
we know from physics, the magnetic field intensity cre-
ated by the current in this case is in proportion to the
speed of inductance change over time. Since the size of
the coil changed with considerable speed during the loop
collapse, the amplitude of the magnetic field also became
huge (tens of millions amperes). At that moment, fusing
destroyed one of the resonator cavity ends and converged
to the point and deflected a shock-wave back changing
the field with the jump. Thus, the standing wave became a
high-pulse power traveling wave generating a pulse
stream of RF electromagnetic emissions. In fractions of
nanoseconds the field changed more suddenly than under
the sine law with a period equal to squeezing-dispersing
time, which means that the function describing the change
included many frequencies. Therefore, the shock-wave
source was an ultra-wideband and emitted the pulses at
the range of hundreds of MHz to hundreds of GHz lasting
for tens-hundreds of microseconds.
26 ISSN 2074-272X. . 2011. 5
Fig. 2. Powerful vircators developed at Tomsk Polytechnic
Institute, 1 – insulator; 2 – metal cathode; 3 – drid anode;
4 – virtual cathode; 5 – dielectric gap
According to American experts, the shock-wave
emitters were first demonstrated by Clarence Fowler at
Los Alamos National Laboratory at the end of the 50’s
[34]. In the 60’s experts and politicians from USA and
USSR realized that such sources of superpower EMP can
be the basis of the new kind of weapon. This was declared
by N.S. Khrushchev who in the 60’s hinted at some fan-
tastic weapon. Surely, it took some time to create the real
weapon based on theoretic evidences. The possibility of
using SWE as an independent weapon capable of generat-
ing superpower EMP was first announced by
Prischepenko A.B., Doctor of Science and Head of Labo-
ratory of Special Weapons of Central Research Institute
for Chemistry and Mechanics after successful tests were
conducted on March 2, 1984 at Krasnoarrneyskiy Re-
search Institute Geodeziya (now FFE RE "Geodeziya")
training range. Later Prischepenko A.B., Associate Mem-
ber of Academy of Military Science and Doctor of Sci-
ence formulated the general concept for the tactical em-
ployment of electromagnetic weapons.
Today, intensive research of IEMI is being con-
ducted in numerous directions and non-explosive shock-
wave emitter (SWE) is not the only type of non-nuclear
electromagnetic weapon known.
There is a wide range of high-power microwave de-
vices: relativistic klystron tubes and magnetrons, reflex-
triodes, backward-wave tubes, gyrotrons, Virtual Cathode
Oscillator (Vircator), etc. Construction of a vircator capable
of generating high-power single energy pulses is simple
and compact allowing using it in a relatively wide range of
microwave frequencies. The concept of the vircator lies in
accelerating a powerful electron stream with a anode grid.
This powerful stream of electrons initially bursts from
cathodes (metal cylinder rods with a diameter of a couple
of centimeters, see Fig. 2) under the high-voltage pulse
(hundreds of kilovolt) and demonstrates electron emission
explosive behavior. A significant number of electrons
comes through the anode grid forming the charge cloud
behind the anode. Under certain circumstances this area of
charge cloud oscillates in the anode region. Generated with
the frequency of the electronic cloud oscillation, the mi-
crowave field is radiated into the environment through di-
electric gap. Pre-oscillation generated current in vircators
can reach 1-10 kA. Vircators are the most suitable devices
for generating nanosecond-range pulses at long-
wavelengths within the centimeter range. During the ex-
periments, capacities of 170 kW - 40 GW in the centimeter
and decimeter range were obtained on such devices. Ac-
cording to published data the experimental device with a
pulse power of approximately 1 GW (265 kW, 3.5 kA) can
damage electronics within 800-1000 m.
Fig. 3. Relativistic high-power microwave generators based on
gyrotrons, vircators and backward-wave tubes developed by
different Research Institutes in Russia
Even such well-known devices as high-voltage pulse
Marx generators, see Fig. 4, containing the set of high-
voltage condensers and tube surge arresters (80 equal
sided) can be used as powerful sources of microwave ra-
diation. In such devices all condensers are initially
charged in-parallel from the high-voltage power supply
and at the moment of cell-type tubes synchronous break-
down all condensers become connected in-series. In the
FEBETRON-2020 portable generator, see Fig. 4, current
pulses of 6 kA are generated under a voltage of 2.3 ,
resulting in radiation of powerful EMPs.
Fig. 4. American unit FEBETRON-2020 constructed on Marx
generator principle and its simplified scheme
ISSN 2074-272X. . 2011. 5 27
Another IEMI trend is the so called beam weapon.
This weapon is based on the usage of a spot beam of
charged or neutral particles generated with different types
of accelerators both on the ground and from satellites in
space. Development of the beam weapon has been greatly
intensified soon after the declaration of Strategic Defense
Initiative (SDI) by Ronald Reagan, the President of USA,
in 1983. Los Alamos National Laboratory and Livermore
National Laboratory have become the central research sites.
Some scientists declared that the laboratories were success-
ful in generating streams of high-energy electrons with
capacities of a hundred times greater than that generated in
research accelerators. At the same laboratory experiments
under the Antigone program proved that an ionized channel
pre-generated by laser beam in atmosphere allows electron
beam to propagate nearly ideal without diffusion.
Powerful compact emitters which can be assembled
on a truck or minibus pose a particular risk.
In 1977 a compact generator of high-power (100-
1000 MW) plane-polarized mono-directional wave beams
of ultra-wideband electromagnetic radiation with pulse of
nanosecond and subnanosecond range designed for damag-
ing electronics was developed in Tomsc Institute of High
Current Electronics (IHCE), Siberian Branch, Russian
Academy of Sciences for researching generation of super-
power electric pulses (of giga- and teraWatts range) under
the supervision of Gennady Mesyats academician, vice-
president of Russian Academy of Sciences see Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Compact powerful ultra-wideband sources of radiation
with capacity up to 1 GW developed at Tomsc Institute of High
Current Electronics
Today, such sources are available from the IHCEfor
just $40-60k and can be installed in a minibus or small truck.
All contact information for such kind of orders is available at
the official web-site of the IHCE. Similar movable and port-
able sources are also developed in USA, see Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Compact source of powerful monodirectional
ultra-shortwave radiation (95 GHz) developed by Sandia
National Laboratories, USA, under Raytheon technology (top), and
powerful sources of mono-directional radiation assembled on
chassis of Hummer off-roadster and ACP Stryker. More powerful
complex is planned to be installed on board of AC-130 airplane
Some countries (USA, Israel, etc.) are developing
compact electromagnetic guns with relatively low capac-
ity capable of damaging electronics within 100 m. Such
devices are interesting both for military and police. A
present-day car, crammed with electronics, has the same
demolition objective as any other modern system. An
American company, Eureka Aerospace, has developed
and launched the production of electromagnetic "stopper"
of a moving car (EMP car-stopper).
This weapon damages the microprocessor, igniting
system, fuel injection system and other vehicle electron-
ics. What will happen if such weapons fall into the hands
of the terrorists (surely, sooner or later this will happen)?
Besides, it is not that hard to find such weapons as many
popular technical magazines describe numerous self-made
systems of such kind, see Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Directional microwave self-made generators described in
popular technical magazines
All this reminds one of the prophetic aphorism of
Winston Churchill who many years ago said, that "The
latest refinements of science are linked with the cruelties
of the Stone Age".
28 ISSN 2074-272X. . 2011. 5
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Received 18.03.2011
Gurevich Vladimir, Ph. D., Honorable Professor
Central Electrical Laboratory of Israel Electric Corp.
POB 10, Haifa 31000, Israel
e-mail: vladimir.gurevich@gmx.net
Gurevich V.I.
Stability of microprocessor relay protection and automation
systems against intentional destructive electromagnetic
impacts. Part 1.
Problems of impact of electromagnetic high-power pulses gen-
erated at nuclear explosion or by means of special equipment
intended specially for damage of electronic equipment, in par-
ticular, digital protective relays and automatic systems, along
with ways of protection against these impacts are considered.
Key words – electronic equipment, relay protection,
electromagnetic impacts.
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