Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises
Purpose. To solve technological and ecological problems of South Africa and other countries using the experience of Russian, Kazakh and Ukrainian miners in mining metals by the combination of traditional and new technologies. The ultimate aim of environmental protection concept is waste-free mineral...
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УкрНДМІ НАН України, Інститут геотехнічної механіки НАН України
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irk-123456789-1456952019-01-27T01:23:37Z Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, V. Burdzieva, O. Purpose. To solve technological and ecological problems of South Africa and other countries using the experience of Russian, Kazakh and Ukrainian miners in mining metals by the combination of traditional and new technologies. The ultimate aim of environmental protection concept is waste-free minerals mining with full utilization of the components produced from mined raw materials. Findings. A brief review of the state of metal production in the world is presented. The environmental trends of mining engineering humanization in technologically advanced countries are defined. The experience of underground leaching of uranium is described. The results of pioneer experiments on the extraction of metals using combined mechanic and chemical treatment in the disintegrator are provided. Economic-mathematical models have been developed in order to determine efficiency of using combined technologies and simulate results of metal extraction. Мета. Вирішення технологічних і екологічних проблем Південної Африки та інших країн із використанням досвіду російських, казахстанських та українських шахтарів при видобуванні металів, що поєднують традиційні й нові технології. Кінцевою метою концепції захисту навколишнього середовища є безвідходний видобуток корисних копалин з повним використанням компонентів, отриманих з видобутої сировини. Результати. Дана коротка довідка про стан виробництва металів у світі. Охарактеризовані природоохоронні тенденції гуманізації гірничої справи в технологічно розвинених країнах. Описано досвід підземного вилуговування урану. Наведено результати піонерних експериментів із вилучення металів комбінованою механохімічною обробкою у дезинтеграторі. Сформульовано економіко-математичні моделі визначення ефективності використання комбінованої технології та моделювання результатів отримання металів. Цель. Решение технологических и экологических проблем Южной Африки и других стран с использованием опыта российских, казахстанских и украинских шахтеров при добыче металлов, сочетающих традиционные и новые технологии. Конечной целью концепции защиты окружающей среды является безотходная добыча полезных ископаемых с полным использованием компонентов, полученных из добытого сырья. Результаты. Дана краткая справка о состоянии производства металлов в мире. Охарактеризованы природоохранные тенденции гуманизации горного дела в технологически развитых странах. Описан опыт подземного выщелачивания урана. Приведены результаты пионерных экспериментов по извлечению металлов комбинированной механохимической обработкой в дезинтеграторе. Сформулированы экономико-математические модели определения эффективности использования комбинированной технологии и моделирование результатов получения металлов. 2017 Article Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises / V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva // Розробка родовищ: Зб. наук. пр. — 2017. — Т. 11, вип. 2. — С. 68-78. — Бібліогр.: 15 назв. — англ. 2415-3435 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/mining11.02.068 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/145695 622.274 en Розробка родовищ УкрНДМІ НАН України, Інститут геотехнічної механіки НАН України |
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Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
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English |
| description |
Purpose. To solve technological and ecological problems of South Africa and other countries using the experience of Russian, Kazakh and Ukrainian miners in mining metals by the combination of traditional and new technologies. The ultimate aim of environmental protection concept is waste-free minerals mining with full utilization of the components produced from mined raw materials. Findings. A brief review of the state of metal production in the world is presented. The environmental trends of mining engineering humanization in technologically advanced countries are defined. The experience of underground leaching of uranium is described. The results of pioneer experiments on the extraction of metals using combined mechanic and chemical treatment in the disintegrator are provided. Economic-mathematical models have been developed in order to determine efficiency of using combined technologies and simulate results of metal extraction. |
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Article |
| author |
Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, V. Burdzieva, O. |
| spellingShingle |
Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, V. Burdzieva, O. Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises Розробка родовищ |
| author_facet |
Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, V. Burdzieva, O. |
| author_sort |
Golik, V. |
| title |
Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises |
| title_short |
Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises |
| title_full |
Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises |
| title_fullStr |
Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises |
| title_sort |
experience of metal deposits combined development for south african enterprises |
| publisher |
УкрНДМІ НАН України, Інститут геотехнічної механіки НАН України |
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2017 |
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http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/145695 |
| citation_txt |
Experience of metal deposits combined development for South African enterprises / V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva // Розробка родовищ: Зб. наук. пр. — 2017. — Т. 11, вип. 2. — С. 68-78. — Бібліогр.: 15 назв. — англ. |
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Розробка родовищ |
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2025-07-10T22:19:10Z |
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Founded in
1900
National Mining
University
Mining of Mineral Deposits
ISSN 2415-3443 (Online) | ISSN 2415-3435 (Print)
Journal homepage http://mining.in.ua
Volume 11 (2017), Issue 2, pp. 68-78
68
UDC 622.274 https://doi.org/10.15407/mining11.02.068
EXPERIENCE OF METAL DEPOSITS COMBINED DEVELOPMENT
FOR SOUTH AFRICAN ENTERPRISES
V. Golik1, V. Komashchenko2, V. Morkun3*, O. Burdzieva4
1Department of Mineral Deposits Mining Technology, North Caucasian Mining and Metallurgical Institute (National Technological
University), Vladikavkaz, Russia
2Department of Applied Geology and Mining, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod, Russia
3Computer Science, Automatic and Management Systems Department, Kryvyi Rih National University, Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine
4Laboratory of Ecology and Life Safety of Mining Territories, Geophysical Institute of Vladikavkaz Scientific Center of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, Vladikavkaz, Russia
*Corresponding author: e-mail morkun@mail.ua, tel. +380936770659
ДОСВІД КОМБІНОВАНОЇ РОЗРОБКИ МЕТАЛЕВИХ РОДОВИЩ –
ДЛЯ ПІВДЕННО-АФРИКАНСЬКИХ ПІДПРИЄМСТВ
В. Голік1, В. Комащенко2, В. Моркун3*, O. Бурдзієва4
1Кафедра технології розробки родовищ, Північно-Кавказький гірничо-металургійний інститут (Державний технологічний
університет), Владикавказ, Росія
2Кафедра прикладної геології та гірництва, Бєлгородський державний національний дослідний університет, Бєлгород, Росія
3Кафедра інформатики, автоматики та систем управління, Криворізький національний університет, Кривий Ріг, Україна
4Лабораторія екології та безпеки життєдіяльності гірничих територій, Геофізичний інститут Владикавказького науко-
вого центру Російської академії наук, Владикавказ, Росія
*Corresponding author: e-mail morkun@mail.ua, tel. +380936770659
ABSTRACT
Purpose. To solve technological and ecological problems of South Africa and other countries using the experience of
Russian, Kazakh and Ukrainian miners in mining metals by the combination of traditional and new technologies. The
ultimate aim of environmental protection concept is waste-free minerals mining with full utilization of the compo-
nents produced from mined raw materials.
Methods. The technology based on leaching metals from ores is used as an alternative to the traditional technology
of metal production, i.e. in-situ extracting metals from ores.
Findings. A brief review of the state of metal production in the world is presented. The environmental trends of
mining engineering humanization in technologically advanced countries are defined. The experience of under-
ground leaching of uranium is described. The results of pioneer experiments on the extraction of metals using
combined mechanic and chemical treatment in the disintegrator are provided. Economic-mathematical models
have been developed in order to determine efficiency of using combined technologies and simulate results of
metal extraction.
Originality. The effectiveness of combining technologies of mining deposits was assessed by comparative analy-
sis of completeness of the valuable component extraction using traditional and combined methods of mining. The
comparative analysis on two criteria allows to determine the optimal value of profits and choose the best way of
metal beneficiation.
Practical implications. The experience of combining technologies can be used at enterprises of South Africa. The
economic and mathematical models for determining effectiveness of combined technology and simulating results of
metal extraction are developed for a specific case study. Recommendations for using the experience of stripped min-
erals leaching are given.
Keywords: metal, environmental protection, mining minerals, in-situ leaching, mechanochemistry, disintegrator
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
69
1. INTRODUCTION
With the development of scientific and technological
revolution of our time, many countries are experiencing
difficulties with supply of industry by metals. Industrial
reserves of exploited ore deposits naturally decrease, and
the metal content in saleable ores decreases, increasing
the production cost of metals. This stimulates the selec-
tive mining of deposit areas and increases the loss of ores
and metals in mining.
Only 5 – 10% of the total volume of extracted sub-
stances from the bowels is realized in the form of prod-
ucts, and the rest are waste. The vast majority of the
extracted rock mass is storage object with a negative
impact on the environment.
Mining operations each year violate about 150 thou-
sand hectares of land, about 40% of them – agricultural
land. Production of 1 million tons of iron ore violates
650 hectares of land, coal – up to 40 hectares, chemical
raw materials – up to 100 hectares, 1 million m3 of build-
ing materials – up to 600 hectares, 1 ton of nonferrous
metals accounts at least 100 – 150 tons of waste during
mining and over 50 – 60 tons during processing. During
production of 1 ton of rare, precious and radioactive
metals are formed up to 5 – 10 thousand tons of wastes,
and during processing 10 – 100 thousand tons (Golik,
Komaсhshenko, & Morkun, 2015a). The thousands of
tons of complex ores are discharged in water. Metal
mines form metal scattering halos, according to metal
content comparable with the reserves in the bowels
(Golik & Komaсhshenko, 2010). Involvement in the
exploitation of the poor fields with difficult operating
conditions, and the backlog of enrichment opportunities
from mining capabilities increases the number of produc-
tion and processing tailings.
The systems of state management of subsoil in devel-
oped countries are trying to protect the subsoil from the
mismanagement by subsoil users and provide effective
development of environmental technologies (Morkun,
Morkun, & Pikilnyak, 2014).
The current state of metal production is characterized by
the regulations (Golik, Rasorenov, & Efremenkov, 2014):
– traditional enrichment processes do not provide full
disclosure of minerals and do not decrease hazard of
chemical contamination during storage of tailings;
– combined use of new energy types is promising di-
rection in extraction of metals from tailings.
Involving in processing the chemicalization sources
of environment ecosystem simultaneously solves two
problems of global significance: the hardening of the
mineral resource base of mining companies and conser-
vation from degradation unique recreational regions of
the Earth.
The most developed mining countries in the world in-
clude South Africa Republic. South Africa occupies a
leading position in Africa on the world’s reserves of
uranium, gold and copper ores localized in carbonatite,
sulphide deposits and deposits of hydrothermal type.
South Africa occupies a priority position among the
industrially developed capitalist and developing countries
for raw uranium production, which is extracted simulta-
neously with the processing of gold-bearing conglomer-
ates of the Witwatersrand. The country has about one
thousand – mining enterprises, mines and quarries.
Gold deposits still remain the largest in the world.
South Africa accounts 12% of all of the world’s uranium
reserves. According to uranium production volume the
country is on second place after United States and Cana-
da, despite the fact that the metal content in the ore is
only 0.02 – 0.03% of uranium oxide. Gold production is
economically justified because the uranium is mined as a
byproduct of gold and by-production of uranium extends
production life of gold mines.
In underground mining of nonferrous metal ores
prevails gross breaking without division into grades.
Systems of development layered, sublevel and level
caving are characterized by ore losses and dilution.
Deposits are developed by underground mining systems
with goaf stowing: using solid and long lava leaving
pillars. The average depth of the development is
2.5 km, the maximum – 4 km.
Platinum is mined using underground way, and along
with platinum: palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium,
iridium.
Ore is enriched at mines with extraction of nickel and
copper. For vein type deposits the increased depth of
mining operations (1000 – 1500 m or more) is accompa-
nied by the activation of dynamic phenomena. The desire
to maximize the use of balance and off-balance ore re-
serves led to the emergence of leaching technology of
uranium ores in-situ in recent years.
The environmental situation in South Africa is char-
acterized by high degradation rates of unique natural
environment. The environmental crisis has come here
for a few decades earlier than in developed countries
and it is connected with intense resource exploitation.
South Africa solves common problems of development,
including the priority role played by overexploitation of
natural resources.
In South Africa, with its exceptional variety of natural-
climatic zones and landscapes, an area of 1.1 million km2
is inhabited by nearly 10% of the world’s known species
of birds, fish and plants, and more than 6% of the species
of mammals and reptiles. Up to 10% of these species are
rare and endemic. Mining industry is hazard primarily for
biodiversity in the country.
The state controls the interaction between major min-
ing companies and environment ecosystems during min-
ing of solid minerals, simulating a potential negative
impact on environmentally sensitive areas and objects of
the environment, but a number of problems of South
African mining industry remains, including disposal of
tailing reserves and provision raw materials for the pro-
duction of hardening mixtures.
The peculiarity of the situation is that the non-ferrous
ores, precious and rare metals are complex and the use of
tailings without extraction of the remaining metals is
economically and ecologically incorrect (Polukhin, Ko-
mashcenko, Golik, & Drebenstedt, 2014).
Another feature is that the base metals such as gold,
uranium, copper, zinc and others are easy-open, what
increases the possibility of a relatively new leaching
technology.
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
70
In solving the technological and ecological problems
of South Africa and other countries the experience of the
Russian, Kazakh and Ukrainian miners on production of
metals combining traditional and new technologies can
be useful (Golik, Komashchenko, & Morkun, 2015b;
Golik, Komashchenko, & Morkun, 2015c; Golik, Ko-
mashchenko, & Drebenstedt, 2014).
2. METHODS AND RESEARCH MATERIALS
Environmental humanization trends of mining engi-
neering in the second half of the twentieth century gave
rise to a class of technologies with stowing: discrete dry,
hydraulic, clay and finally a radical effect on the array
state - monolithic hardening stowing (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Development system with breaking by sublevel orts
with stowing by hardening mixture: 1 – 4 – are the
extraction sequence of reserves
With undeniable merits, especially the preservation of
the array from the destruction with high-quality of ex-
tracted ores, technologies with stowing require the hoist-
ing to the surface for processing not only all ore, but also
diluting rocks.
This weakness is mostly fixed by the use of technolo-
gy with leaching metals. The use of these technologies
transfers mining process into the depths. Many of the
exploited metal deposits turned into anthropogenic, sub-
jected to re-mining, for example, deposits of Sadon ore
belt (North Ossetia-Alania), the age of mining is
200 years. They are composed of already separated from
the array and fractured rock mass available for chemical
leaching. The condition for application of these technol-
ogies is provision of reacting particles sizes, uniformity
of arrays and associated filtration capacity of ores (Golik,
Komashshenko, & Razorenov, 2014).
Investigation of leaching issues that form the re-
mining problem of lost and off-balance ore deposits,
primarily uranium, has begun over 30 years ago as an
alternative to the pyrometallurgical methods, the use of
which is dangerous for environment. In technologically
advanced countries are developed geotechnical methods
of production of metals using chemical dissolution.
Most often it is uranium, gold, copper, zinc (Komash-
chenko & Erokhin, 2013).
New and traditional mining technologies of balance
and off-balance reserves are combined to improve the
economic efficiency. In-situ leaching of off-balance ores
was applied in the uranium deposit of the North Cauca-
sus. After stoping of balance reserves uranium was cost-
effectively leached for 30 years with the content in the
ore, 2 times less than the balance level.
In-situ leaching of balance ores was carried out in ura-
nium deposit (Northern Kazakhstan). The lenticular ore
body in intensely fractured rocks with hardness of 4 – 6
according to M.M. Protodiakonov was mined. Block
dimensions, meters: length – 30; width – 5; height – 30.
Ore loss ratio was 1.12. Metal extraction ratio in solution
was 72% (Morkun & Tron, 2014).
Heap leaching of metals is carried out in parallel with
underground leaching and it is extended to gold, copper
and uranium mines as the disposal possibility of primary
processing tailings.
Strategy of environmental technologies is based on
the following provisions:
– unreasonableness of technologies is expressed in
the loss of natural resources;
– degradation of ecosystems is the result of unreason-
able technologies, so the value of profit from the sale of
commercial products must be reduced by the amount of
compensation for damage to the environment.
Mining production is considered safe if anthropogen-
ic perturbation of the ecosystem does not exceed the
level at which its biota retains the ability to recover.
Technologies vary in their hazard level: hazardous (with
open goaf, caving, shrinkage, barring, etc.), intermediate:
extraction of metals in situ, when reinforced tails are a
special case of hardening stowing, and safe: with filling
voids by hardening mixtures.
The most hazardous technologies are with caving
when the surface of the Earth is destroyed, along with its
ecosystem. Even more hazardous technology are the ones
when the safety of the lithosphere is declared but not
guaranteed (with shrinkage, barring).
Directions of hazard mitigation include: extraction
of rich ore with stowing voids by hardening mixtures;
in-situ leaching of poor and lost ores; heap leaching of
poor ores winded to surface; leaching of enrichment and
metallurgical tailings with activation in devices such as
a disintegrator.
Hardening mixtures are effective tool for array man-
agement by controlling the strains in the array. Arrays
are divided into geomechanicaly balanced areas by com-
bining compositions of hardening stowing with different
stiffness, dry stowing, leaving cavities unfilled or filled
with tails of in-situ leaching. The disadvantage of this
technology is that for production of hardening mixture
components the lithosphere must be destroyed again.
Therefore, the use for these purposes not natural but
recyclable materials is the main direction (Morkun,
Morkun, & Tron, 2015).
Technology with leaching metals from ores is an al-
ternative to the traditional technology of metal produc-
tion, in-situ extracting metals from ores.
Opening minerals by chemicals allows extracting up
to 50 – 70% of metals. Rich ores are transferred to the
surface and processed at the plant, and the rest - in the
underground blocks and piles on the surface. The final
by-products of technology the implementation of which
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
71
reduces the cost of the main production are metals, con-
struction materials, desalinated water, chlorine, hydro-
gen, oxygen, acids and alkali.
The final aim of environmental protection concept is
waste-free mining production with full utilization of the
components produced from mined raw materials.
It includes:
– mitigation of ore dilution by rocks when stowing
voids by hardening mixtures;
– maximum use of reserves when leaching poor and
low-grade ores;
– hydrometallurgical processing of ores with extrac-
tion of all valuable components.
Disposal of tailing resources is possible only after
the extraction of the metals to the level of sanitary re-
quirements. Such requirements are met by the new
technology with impact on mineral resources at the
same time by mechanical and chemical energy in the
activators of disintegrator type (Komashchenko, Golik,
& Drebenshtedt, 2010).
Prospects for stowing technologies involve the use of
tailings after extraction of metals and leaching tailings.
The leached ores that remain in-situ at the end of the
metal extraction are bonded by natural binders to the
array, the strength of which is comparable with the
strength of hardening mixtures at low cement consump-
tion (0.5 – 1 megapascal).
Ore mining technologies are ranked on the basis of
resource use (Table 1):
– optimization of outcrop spans, pillar sizes and in-
fluence zones of mines;
– combination of technologies in the development
stages;
– filling out of caved space by mining wastes.
The influence zone height of mining operations on
the array is determined by the size and the ratio of the
structural rock blocks and stress:
V
lh = , (1)
where:
V – the coefficient of rock stability;
l – arch span, m.
1
2
1
22
comp
comp
R
R
d
dV = , (2)
where:
d2, d1 – the vertical and horizontal dimensions of rock
blocks, m;
R1
comp, R2
comp – are the compressive strength of rocks
in the direction of arch thrust and in the direction of the
rock mass.
When combining technologies geomechanical factors
are accounted.
An array is safe, while ensuring conditions:
comp
comp
R
R
d
d
l
V
lhH
′
′′==>
1
242
. (3)
Table 1. Typification of ore mining technologies
Types of
technology
Characteristic
features
Waste
utilization Land state
Hazardous
With rock
caving
Increased ore
dilution
Accumulation
of wastes
without
utilization
Complete
degradation of
the land in the
zone of
influence
Safe
With stowing
voids by hard-
ening mixtures
With stowing by
leaching tailings
Minimal ore
dilution
without
transfer to
surface
Full utilization
of own and
related indus-
try wastes
Exclusion of
land degrada-
tion in the
affected area
Combined
Combination of
types with
leaving part of
voids unfilled
Ore dilution
by rocks,
depending on
the volume
of combining
Utilization of
production
wastes
depending on
the volume of
combining
Limited
impact on the
land in the
case of viola-
tion of techno-
logical
regimes
Dimensions of pillar ensuring its safety within the in-
fluence area of voids:
scomp HK
h
Hl
b
γσ
γ
−
−
= 3
2
, (4)
where:
b – the width of the pillar, m;
l – maximum arch span, m;
γ – bulk weight of rocks;
H – the depth of works, m;
h – the height of the impact zone of mining opera-
tions on the array, m;
σcomp – compressive strength of rocks, MPa;
Ks – the safety factor.
The arch span of the self-blocking of rocks:
= l
HK
R
dl
s
comp
γ
10
2 1 , (5)
where:
l – span of limit self-blocking arch, m;
d1 – horizontal size of the structure block of rocks, m;
Rcomp – resistance to compression in the direction of
rock weight, kg/cm2;
10 – conversion factor from kg/cm2 into ton/m2;
γ – bulk weight of rocks, ton/m3;
H – the depth of the arch foots, m;
Ks – the safety factor.
Depending on the natural and economic conditions, the
mining enterprise is going through one or several stages
(Fig. 2) (Golik, Komaсhshenko, & Morkun, (2015d).
The first stage is characterized by advanced stoping
of rich deposit sites, and losses are compensated by in-
creased hoisting of rich ores. The second stage is charac-
terized by decrease of rich ore reserves, and a decrease in
ore grades is compensated by an increase in production
volume. The third stage – extraction of metals from sub-
standard ores and recycling wastes.
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
72
Figure 2. Stages of mine development
The optimal scheme of development of the deposit is
the rational use of stages in time and space (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. The optimized deposit development scheme
The effectiveness of deposit development in the first
stage (Burdzieva, Shevchenko, & Ermishina, 2010):
( ) ( )
( ) ( )olRRRfA
EcvAP
eb
t t t
+−==
+−= −
1
1 1
1
1111
1
11
, (6)
where:
P1 – profit, rubles;
A1 – production capacity of enterprise, tons/year;
v1 – enriched ore value, rubles/unit;
c1 – the cost of production and processing, rubles/unit;
E – the discount rate, fraction units;
Rb – balance ore reserves, tons;
Re – estimated reserves, tons;
Rl+o – reserves of low-grade and off-balance ores.
The effectiveness of field development in the second
stage:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )bel
t t
t
l
RRRfA
EcA
E
P
−==
+−
+
=
+
−
02
1
1
222
1
2
2
21
1
1 νΔ , (7)
where:
P2 – profit, rubles;
A2 – production capacity of enterprise, tons/year;
v2 – enriched ore value, rubles/unit;
c2 – the cost of production and processing, rubles/unit;
E – the discount rate of costs and profit, fraction units;
Rb – balance ore reserves, tons;
Re – estimated reserves, tons;
Rl+o – reserves of low-grade and off-balance ores.
The effectiveness of field development in the third stage:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )beto
t t t
t
RRRfA
EcvA
E
P
−==
+−
+
=
+
−
3
1 1
1
3333
3
31
1
1
Δ , (8)
where:
P3 – profit, rubles;
A3 – production capacity of enterprise, tons/year;
v3 – enriched ore value, rubles/unit;
c3 – the cost of production and processing, rubles/unit;
E – the discount rate, fraction units;
Rb – balance ore reserves, tons;
Re – estimated reserves, tons;
Ro+t – off-balance ores and tailing reserves.
To compare the effectiveness of variants the analysis of
production function in the modern models of economic
growth for conditions: from raw material in the metallurgi-
cal plant will extracted 40% of metal with extraction ratio
of 0.93. From 50% of balance reserves that remain for in-
situ leaching with extraction ratio of 0.8, and taking into
account solution processing losses, 39% of the metal will
be obtained. For the content of the metal in off-balance
ores 1 gram/ton in the final product 2.3% of the metal will
be extracted, and through extraction ratio will be 0.88
(Polukhin, Komashcenko, Golik, & Drebenstedt, 2014).
The maximum values of the target function are associ-
ated with a combination of traditional technology and in-
situ leaching in stage 2. For average metal content the most
effective combination of technologies is the ratio of 15% –
traditional technology (TT), and 85% – in-situ leaching
(ISL). For rich ores an optimal ratio of technologies is
40% – traditional technology and 60% in-situ leaching.
For combined technology, when 40% of the ore is
raised to the surface, while 60% of ore is leached in-situ,
with the same rock mass productivity the metal produc-
tivity is 2 times higher than for traditional method. Oper-
ational efficiency of mining plant worker counted for
metal increases by 1.5 times. When increasing the metal
productivity of the mine by 1.5 times the mine productiv-
ity on rock mass raise accounts only 40% of that of the
traditional method. To increase the annual downward of
mining operations in accordance with the increase in
productivity by 1.5 times the ore areas that are in simul-
taneous development increases by 3 times.
Main production reduces the price of commercial
products from waste:
– metals and non-metals in the form of salts and oxides;
– secondary tails with the content of ingredients be-
low the maximum allowable concentration;
– demineralized water for heating, cooling and other
purposes;
– gas products: chlorine, hydrogen and oxygen.
Profit from the extraction of metals from tailings with
damage to the environment:
( )
( )
m
sh
M
n
MMOMTM
sh
o
n
OOMOOTO
x
S
t
ZZS
S
t
QZZS
P
M
o
+
−−
+
++
−−
=
1
01
, (9)
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
73
where:
Px – the profits from the processing of tailings,
rubles/ton;
STO – the marketing cost of products of processed tail-
ings, rubles/ton;
ZOO – costs of redistribution processing of tailings,
rubles/ton;
ZOM – the cost of metallurgical redistribution of tail-
ings, rubles/ton;
no – the amount of extractable components from the
tailings;
QO – the mass of tailings, tons;
to – time for processing of the tailings, years;
S0
sh – fines for storage of tailings, rubles/year;
STM – sales of metallurgical processing tailings, ru-
bles/ton;
ZOM – the enrichment costs of metallurgical pro-
cessing tailings, rubles/ton;
ZMM – the costs of metallurgical redistribution of met-
allurgical processing tailings, rubles/ton;
nM – the amount of components enriched from metal-
lurgical processing tailings;
tM – the processing time of metallurgical tailings, years;
Sm
sh – fines for storage of metallurgical tailings,
rubles/year.
Extraction of metals from low-grade ores and tailings
using leaching can be implemented at all stages of the
deposit development (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Technology of metals leaching from ores: 1 – heap
leaching bing; 2 – block of in-situ leaching; 3 – dump;
4 – pond; 5 – 8 – storage tanks; 9, 10 – technological
devices; 11 – sorption-desorption column; 12 – 15 –
auxiliary equipment
The effectiveness of combining technologies of field
development was assessed by comparison of extraction
completeness of the valuable component (VC) from the
subsoil using traditional (TT) and a combined methods of
extraction.
In order to justify the use of technologies based on
the static economic-mathematical model, their reaction of
objective function (profit on change of development
parameters) is examined. The comparative analysis on
two criteria permits to determine the optimal value of
profits and choose the best way of metal enrichment.
Traditional method. Amount of valuable components
raised to the Earth’s surface:
161 εβbQM = , (10)
where:
Qb – amount of ore in the balance contour, mass
units;
β6 – the content of the valuable component in the bal-
ance contour, units;
ε1 – extraction ratio of valuable component, units.
The amount of valuable components (M2) extracted
into the concentrate using enrichment:
3216212 εεεβε bQQM == , (11)
where:
ε2 – extraction ratio of valuable component from ore
into concentrate, units.
The amount of valuable components extracted from
the concentrate into the final product:
3216323 εεεβε bQMM == , (12)
where:
ε3 – extraction ratio of valuable component from con-
centrate into the final product, units.
The extraction completeness of the valuable compo-
nent (ε3) is the ratio of valuable component in the final
product to the amount of valuable components in subsoil:
321
32163
3 εεε
εεεβε
M
M
M
Q
M
M bb === , (13)
where:
M – the amount of valuable components in subsoil
prior to development, mass units;
Мb = Qbβ6 – amount of valuable components in the
balance contour, mass units.
The combined method consists in raising part of the
ore from block, enrichment, plant processing and in-situ
leaching.
The amount of valuable components extracted to
form the compensation space:
BQBM ε=4 , (14)
where:
QB – amount of produced ore, mass units;
εB – the content of valuable components in produced
ore, units.
The amount of valuable components extracted into
concentrate:
2245 εβε bbQMM == . (15)
The amount of valuable components extracted from
concentrate into final product at the plant:
32356 εεβε bbQMM == . (16)
The amount of valuable components extracted into
final product using in-situ leaching:
( ) ( ) 4447 εβε bbQMMMM −=−= , (17)
where:
ε4 – extraction ratio of valuable component from ore
by in-situ leaching, units.
Amount of valuable components extracted by com-
bining technologies:
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
74
76 MMM k += . (18)
Dependence, which determines the extraction of the
valuable components from the subsoil into final product:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )[ ]
( )432
4
4
43244
4432
4327
εεε
εεεεβεε
εβεεεβ
εβεεβε
−
+=
−+
=
=
−+
=
=
⋅−++
=
M
M
M
Q
M
QMQ
M
QMQ
M
MM
bb
bbbb
bbbbb
k
. (19)
The combined technology permits to combine the ex-
traction and processing of high-grade ores with metal
leaching from sub-standard reserves. Technology with
leaching compared with traditional one reduces metal
losses during production by 5 – 10%, and in the enrich-
ment by 2 – 2.5%.
Through extraction ratio for the traditional technolo-
gy is not more than 0.865. The technology of in-situ
leaching for producing 40% with 50% metal content in
mining and metallurgical plant will be extracted 40.5%
of valuable component with extraction ratio of 0.93.
From remaining 50% balance reserves of metals with
extraction ratio of in-situ leaching of 0.8 and taking into
account the processing loss of valuable components will
be extracted 39.2 of the metals in the final product. In the
case of 3% of the metals in the off-balance ores 2.3% of
valuable components will be extracted into the final
product. Through extraction ratio of metal by in-situ
leaching amounted 0.879.
The reaction of the objective function – profit on the
change of development parameters:
– the ratio of reserves, developed by technologies:
traditional from 0 to 100%; heap leaching from 0 to
100%; in-situ leaching from 0 to 80%;
– the contents of the valuable components in block
reserves from minimum in off-balance ores up to a max-
imum in rich ores;
– increase in the content of the ore raised from com-
pensation space, compared with the content in the block
from 0 to 30%;
– extraction ratio in the case of in-situ leaching from
0.6 to 0.9;
– extraction ratio in the case of heap leaching from
0 to 0.9;
– the cost of mining, transportation, processing of
ore, production and processing of productive solutions
in-situ leaching and heap leaching.
Extraction ratios for in-situ leaching and heap leaching
take values ranging from 0.6 to 0.9. Comparable risks for
traditional technology are calculations on average values,
and the combination of technology – on the lower limit of
extraction. The level confidence in both cases is 0.9.
The maximum values x of the target function are
achieved when traditional technology and in-situ leach-
ing are combined. The optimum of target function pro-
vides an option, when the content of metals in the re-
serves of the block is below 65 – 70 conv. units the tech-
nologies are correlated as 15% – traditional and 85% –
in-situ leaching.
The maximum profit is achieved when the content of
metal in reserves amounts from 65 – 70 to 130 – 150
units and the ratio of technologies: 40% – traditional and
60% – in-situ leaching. Improving the efficiency of the
combined technology is possible due to the increased
volume of ore excavation prior to dilution.
The optimum value of productivity is achieved when
40% of the ore is raised to the surface, and 60% of the
ore is leached in-situ. The productivity of metal in the
final product is two times higher than in a case of tradi-
tional method for the same performance of rock mass.
Production rate of mining plant worker according to the
final product will increase 1.5 times.
With the same number of mining plant workers, the
production rate of mine on rock mass for combined
technology will be 40% of the traditional technology,
and the production rate on metal in the final product
will increase 1.5 times.
In the case of combined technology, the mining life
of one horizon in comparison to traditional technology
increases 2 times, if ore areas are in simultaneous devel-
opment – 3 times (Fig. 5).
Figure 5. The effectiveness of in-situ leaching of ores
Due to significant costs of transport and processing in
mining and metallurgical plant of diluted ore mass when
mining poor ores traditional technology does not com-
pensate the lost value of the valuable components in the
subsoil and on the technological conversions.
Through extraction ratio for combined technology is
comparable to extraction with the traditional technology,
and in those cases where it is lower, due to minimization
of losses it compensates costs and provides profit.
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
75
Example. The deposit is a lenticular body composed
by five zones, with reserves determined based on a nor-
mal distribution with a significance level of 0.05 for chi -
square and different metal contents in each zone.
Reserves of ore zones:
– 10000 weight units of ore with content of valuable
component 0.2 relative units;
– 20000 weight units of ore with content of valuable
component 0.06 relative units;
– 25000 weight units of ore with content of valuable
component 0.05 relative units;
– 20000 weight units of ore with content of valuable
component 0.025 relative units;
– 25000 weight units of ore with content of valuable
component 0.2 relative units;
The field totally contains 100000 weight units of ore
and 5450 weight units of metals.
When developing the deposit using traditional meth-
od the zones 1, 2 and 3 are developed and zones 4 and 5
are not due to the low content of mining. The content of
valuable component MB = 4450 weight units.
Extraction in the case of traditional technology. Dur-
ing processing of ore mined using traditional method the
extraction in the concentrate in enriching factory is
ε2 = 0.9, and the extraction of useful component from the
concentrate to the finished product – ε3 = 0.98.
The final extraction εT for traditional method:
68.098.09.095.0
5450
4460
321 =⋅⋅⋅== εεεε
M
M B
T . (20)
Extraction with leaching. The zone 1 containing 2000
weight units is mined using leaching. The final product
for ore processing at enriching factory and mining and
metallurgical plant:
176098.09.02000321 =⋅⋅== εεMM me . (21)
The amount of metals in the subsoil for in-situ leaching:
34502000545010 =−=−= MMM . (22)
The ores are leached at 45% (εp = 0.45), and using in-
situ leaching metals are extracted from the remaining
part of ore:
155045.0345001 =⋅== pr MM ε . (23)
Total enrichment of standard row materials:
61.0
5450
15511760 =+=
+
=
M
MM rlme
kpε , (24)
i.e. lower than for traditional method.
Extraction in the case of combined technology. For
combined technology, the ore is raised from zones 1, 2
and 3, and valuable component according to condition:
29005450
98.09.045.0
68.045.0
32
=⋅
⋅−
−=
⋅−
−
′ MM
p
Tp
εεε
εε
. (25)
Extracted metals:
256098.09.0290032 =⋅−=′=′ εεMM me . (26)
Number of metals for in-situ leaching:
2550290054500 =−=′−=′ MMM . (27)
The amount of useful minerals extracted at in-situ
leaching:
115045.025500 =⋅=′=′ pisl xMM ε . (28)
The final extraction in the case of combined technology:
68.0
5450
11502560 =+=
′+′
=°
M
MM islme
pε . (29)
The combination provides a through extraction of met-
als from the sublevel not lower than traditional method.
The average metal content in the raised ore at frag-
mentation index Fi = 1.35:
( ) ( ) 112.0
135.1100000
35.12900
1
=
−⋅
⋅=
−
′
=
QF
КМ
i
Р
pβ . (30)
To fulfill this condition has to be raised: from zone
1 – all ore, from zone 2 – 10000 weight units of ore with
content 0.06, from zone 3 – 5900 weight units of ore with
content 0.05.
The maximum efficiency of mining is provided under
condition:
MМ
n
Tп
32εεε
εε
−
−
≥′ , (31)
where:
M – the amount of useful component in the depths of
the deposit, weight units;
M/ – number of useful components raised from the
subsoil, weight units;
εn – extraction of metals from ores using leaching
technology, weight units;
εT – extraction of metals from the subsoil for tradi-
tional method:
321 εεεε
М
М n
T = , (32)
where:
Mn – the number of metals, traditional method,
weight units;
ε1 – extraction of metals from the bowels, traditional
method, weight units;
ε2 – extraction of metals into concentrate in the pro-
cessing plant, weight units;
ε3 – extraction of useful components from the concen-
trate to the finished product in the Mining and Metallur-
gical Plant, weight units.
The metal content in the ore at stoping:
( )1−
′
=
i
i
p FQ
FMβ , (33)
where:
βp – the metal content in the produced ore; weight units;
Q – amount of ore, containing M metals, weight units;
Fi – fragmentation index of ore.
Mining of raw materials for the preparation of mix-
tures complicates the ecological situation in the region.
There are billions of tons of solid wastes of mining pro-
duction in the vaults of the world, which can not be used
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
76
as far as they contain metals. Utilization of tailings is
impossible without metal extraction also from an eco-
nomic and environmental point of view, and in case of
placement in the cavities tailings containing metals and
saturated tailings is certain palliative.
The scarce and valuable metals, the cost of which
could be comparable to the cost of enriched metals enter
into the composition of metal containing tailings. The
metals contained in the wastes under the influence of
leaching processes migrate to the environmental ecosys-
tems causing serious consequences.
The utilization range of mineral wastes is limited by
capabilities of traditional enrichment technologies. The
direction of metal extraction from the tailings of mining
production by combining the processes of mechanical
activation and chemical leaching is being developed in
recent years. This direction allows extracting metals to
the level of maximum permissible concentration of 2
orders faster than in the case of agitation leaching.
The phenomenon of varying properties of materials in
disintegrators is used in technology of preparation hard-
ening mixtures. Thus the mixture strength increases at
low quality of primary components (Fig. 6).
Figure 6. Chart of ores leaching in the disintegrator
3. RESULTS
The results of processing tailings of polymetallic ores
permit to confirm:
– activation in disintegrator increases the activity of
substances up to 40%;
– activation in the disintegrator with separate leaching
increases the extraction of tailings: lead – in 1.4 times,
zinc – 1.1 times;
– leaching in disintegrator compared with way of
separate activation and leaching provides the same ex-
traction level by 2 orders faster.
The strength of hardening mixtures based on enrich-
ment tailings in the case of activation in disintegrator
rises from 1.30 to 1.52 megapascals or by coefficient
1.17. After extraction of metals to the level of sanitary
requirements the tailings that were activated in a disinte-
grator are suitable for the production of hardening mix-
tures sometimes even without adding cement.
Activated tailings are used in hardening mixtures, not
only as inert fillers, but also as binder components. Fine
enrichment fractions of up to 0.076 mm, which include
carbonate components are used as binders. Grinding of
tailings to the level of active faction makes it possible to
produce stowing mixtures of sufficient strength to fill the
vast amount of technogenic cavities.
Activation of tailings in the disintegrator allows small
factions to compete with cement. Mixtures based on
activated tailings provide the strength under uniaxial
compression of 0.5 – 1.5 megapascal. This strength is
sufficient to stow the most part of mined-out space while
reducing the consumption of cement in the orders com-
pared to the baseline value.
Recommendations on the results of simulation com-
bination parameters: poor ore containing up to 5 units
processed by heap leaching, the ore with an ordinary
content of 65 to 200 units after enrichment is directed to
the Mining and Metallurgical Plant and with the ore
content greater than 200 is sent to the processing without
enrichment. Metal extraction rate varies by 8 – 10%.
Reduced quality of ore mined using traditional technolo-
gy due to dilution increases the metal loss at a plant by
1 – 2%. For leaching technologies the losses due to dilu-
tion are eliminated. This increases the extraction rate in
Mining and Metallurgical Plants by 1 – 1.5%.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The materials-products of mechanochemical pro-
cessing that recyclable without sanitation limitations
form practically unlimited raw materials source not only
for the mining industry, but also for allied industries.
Involvement in the production of substandard reserves is
strengthening the national resource security of the coun-
tries, avoiding dependence on the world market of met-
als. Combining traditional development technologies
with the leaching technologies of metals is unused re-
serve for economic recovery of mining enterprises.
The combination experience of technologies can be
used in enterprises of South Africa. The deposits of
South Africa according to mineralogical composition of
ore minerals, underground mining techniques and hazard
of chemical pollution of metal mining areas more than
others meet the conditions of leaching metals.
Diversification of traditional technology that is based
on leaching technology in conditions of South African
mining regions will provide unlimited opportunities for
filling voids by hardening mixtures. This is especially
important when working at great depths in strained rock
arrays with an increased tendency to dynamic redistribu-
tion of rock pressure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The results of the article were obtained without the
support of any of the projects or funding.
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ABSTRACT (IN UKRAINIAN)
Мета. Вирішення технологічних і екологічних проблем Південної Африки та інших країн із використанням
досвіду російських, казахстанських та українських шахтарів при видобуванні металів, що поєднують традиційні
й нові технології. Кінцевою метою концепції захисту навколишнього середовища є безвідходний видобуток
корисних копалин з повним використанням компонентів, отриманих з видобутої сировини.
Методика. Технологія з вилуговуванням металів з руд використовується як альтернатива традиційній тех-
нології видобутку металів, вилучення металів з руд на місці їх розташування.
Результати. Дана коротка довідка про стан виробництва металів у світі. Охарактеризовані природоохоронні
тенденції гуманізації гірничої справи в технологічно розвинених країнах. Описано досвід підземного вилугову-
вання урану. Наведено результати піонерних експериментів із вилучення металів комбінованою механохіміч-
ною обробкою у дезинтеграторі. Сформульовано економіко-математичні моделі визначення ефективності вико-
ристання комбінованої технології та моделювання результатів отримання металів.
Наукова новизна. Досвід поєднання технологій може бути використаний на підприємствах Південної Аф-
рики. У конкретному прикладі сформульовані економічні та математичні моделі для визначення ефективності
комбінованої технології та моделювання результатів вилучення металів. Наведено рекомендації щодо викорис-
тання досвіду вилуговування збіднених мінералів.
Практична значимість. Ефективність поєднання технологій розробки родовищ оцінювалася шляхом зіста-
влення повноти вилучення цінного компонента з надр з використанням традиційних та комбінованих методів
екстракції. Порівняльний аналіз за двома критеріями дозволяє визначити оптимальну величину прибутку і виб-
рати найкращий спосіб збагачення металу.
Ключові слова: метал, захист навколишнього середовища, видобуток корисних копалин, вилуговування на
місці, механохімія, дезинтегратор
ABSTRACT (IN RUSSIAN)
Цель. Решение технологических и экологических проблем Южной Африки и других стран с использовани-
ем опыта российских, казахстанских и украинских шахтеров при добыче металлов, сочетающих традиционные
и новые технологии. Конечной целью концепции защиты окружающей среды является безотходная добыча
полезных ископаемых с полным использованием компонентов, полученных из добытого сырья.
Методика. Технология с выщелачиванием металлов из руд используется как альтернатива традиционной
технологии добычи металлов, извлечение металлов из руд на месте их расположения.
Результаты. Дана краткая справка о состоянии производства металлов в мире. Охарактеризованы приро-
доохранные тенденции гуманизации горного дела в технологически развитых странах. Описан опыт подзем-
ного выщелачивания урана. Приведены результаты пионерных экспериментов по извлечению металлов ком-
бинированной механохимической обработкой в дезинтеграторе. Сформулированы экономико-математические
модели определения эффективности использования комбинированной технологии и моделирование результа-
тов получения металлов.
Научная новизна. Эффективность сочетания технологий разработки месторождений оценивалась путем
сопоставления полноты извлечения ценного компонента из недр с использованием традиционных и комбини-
V. Golik, V. Komashchenko, V. Morkun, O. Burdzieva. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(2), 68-78
78
рованных методов экстракции. Сравнительный анализ по двум критериям позволяет определить оптимальную
величину прибыли и выбрать наилучший способ обогащения металла.
Практическая значимость. Опыт сочетания технологий может быть использован на предприятиях Южной
Африки. В конкретном примере сформулированы экономические и математические модели для определения
эффективности комбинированной технологии и моделирования результатов извлечения металлов. Приведены
рекомендации по использованию опыта выщелачивания обедненных минералов.
Ключевые слова: металл, защита окружающей среды, добыча полезных ископаемых, выщелачивание на
месте, механохимия, дезинтегратор
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 11 February 2017
Accepted: 6 June 2017
Available online: 30 June 2017
ABOUT AUTHORS
Vladimir Golik, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor of the Department of Mineral Deposits Mining Technology,
North Caucasian Mining and Metallurgical Institute (National Technological University), 44 Nikolaeva St, 5/2,
362021, Vladikavkaz, Russia. E-mail: v.i.golik@mail.ru
Vitaliy Kоmashchenko, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor of the Department of Applied Geology and Mining,
Belgorod State National Research University, 85 Pobedy St, 14/4, 308015, Belgorod, Russia. E-mail: komash-
chenko@inbox.ru
Volodymyr Morkun, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor of the Computer Science, Automatic and Management
Systems Department, Kryvyi Rih National University, 11 Matusevycha St, 50027, Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine. E-mail:
morkun@mail.ua
Ol’ga Burdzieva, Candidate of Geographical Sciences, Head of the Laboratory of Ecology and Life Safety of Mining
Territories, Geophysical Institute of Vladikavkaz Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
93a Markova St, 362002, Vladikavkaz, Russia. E-mail: olgaburdzieva@mail.ru
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