Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients

A computer-algebra aided method is carried out, for determining geometric objects associated to differential operators that satisfy the elliptic ansatz. This results in examples of Lamé curves with double reduction and in the explicit reduction of the theta function of a Halphen curve.

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Дата:	2007
Автори:	Eilbeck, J.C., Enolski, V.Z., Previato, E.
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Мова:	English
Опубліковано:	Інститут математики НАН України 2007
Назва видання:	Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications
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Цитувати:	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients / J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski, E. Previato // Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications. — 2007. — Т. 3. — Бібліогр.: 37 назв. — англ.

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spelling	irk-123456789-1478182019-02-17T01:23:39Z Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients Eilbeck, J.C. Enolski, V.Z. Previato, E. A computer-algebra aided method is carried out, for determining geometric objects associated to differential operators that satisfy the elliptic ansatz. This results in examples of Lamé curves with double reduction and in the explicit reduction of the theta function of a Halphen curve. 2007 Article Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients / J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski, E. Previato // Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications. — 2007. — Т. 3. — Бібліогр.: 37 назв. — англ. 1815-0659 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 33E05; 34L10; 14H42; 14H45 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/147818 en Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications Інститут математики НАН України
institution	Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
collection	DSpace DC
language	English
description	A computer-algebra aided method is carried out, for determining geometric objects associated to differential operators that satisfy the elliptic ansatz. This results in examples of Lamé curves with double reduction and in the explicit reduction of the theta function of a Halphen curve.
format	Article
author	Eilbeck, J.C. Enolski, V.Z. Previato, E.
spellingShingle	Eilbeck, J.C. Enolski, V.Z. Previato, E. Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications
author_facet	Eilbeck, J.C. Enolski, V.Z. Previato, E.
author_sort	Eilbeck, J.C.
title	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients
title_short	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients
title_full	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients
title_fullStr	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients
title_full_unstemmed	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients
title_sort	spectral curves of operators with elliptic coefficients
publisher	Інститут математики НАН України
publishDate	2007
url	http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/147818
citation_txt	Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients / J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski, E. Previato // Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications. — 2007. — Т. 3. — Бібліогр.: 37 назв. — англ.
series	Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications
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first_indexed	2025-07-11T02:54:06Z
last_indexed	2025-07-11T02:54:06Z
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fulltext	Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications SIGMA 3 (2007), 045, 17 pages Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients? J. Chris EILBECK †, Victor Z. ENOLSKI ‡1 and Emma PREVIATO § † The Maxwell Institute and Department of Mathematics, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK EH14 4AS E-mail: J.C.Eilbeck@hw.ac.uk ‡ Institute of Magnetism, 36 Vernadski Str., Kyiv-142, Ukraine E-mail: vze@ma.hw.ac.uk § Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Boston University, Boston MA 02215-2411, USA E-mail: ep@bu.edu Received November 21, 2006, in final form February 16, 2007; Published online March 12, 2007 Original article is available at http://www.emis.de/journals/SIGMA/2007/045/ Abstract. A computer-algebra aided method is carried out, for determining geometric objects associated to differential operators that satisfy the elliptic ansatz. This results in examples of Lamé curves with double reduction and in the explicit reduction of the theta function of a Halphen curve. Key words: (equianharmonic) elliptic integrals; Lamé, Hermite, Halphen equation; theta function 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 33E05; 34L10; 14H42; 14H45 Dedicated to the memory of Vadim Kuznetsov 1 Introduction The classical theory of reduction, initiated by Weierstrass, has found modern applications to the fields of Integrable Systems and Number Theory, to name but two. In this short note we only address specific cases, providing minimal historical references, listing the steps that we devised, and exhibiting some new explicit formulas. A full-length discussion of original motivation, theoretical advancements and modern applications would take more than one book to present fairly, and again, we choose to provide one (two-part) reference only, which is recent and captures our point of view [3, 4]. Our point of departure is rooted in the classical theory of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs). At a time when activity in the study of elliptic functions was most intense, Halphen, Hermite and Lamé (among many others) obtained deep results in the spectral theory of lin- ear differential operators with elliptic coefficients. Using differential algebra, Burchnall and Chaundy described the spectrum (by which we mean the joint spectrum of the commuting operators) of those operators that are now called algebro-geometric, and some non-linear Par- tial Differential Equations (PDEs) satisfied by their coefficients under isospectral deformations along ‘time’ flows, t1, . . . , tg, where g is the genus of the spectral ring. We seek algorithms that, starting with an Ordinary Differential Operator (ODO) with elliptic coefficients, produce an ?This paper is a contribution to the Vadim Kuznetsov Memorial Issue ‘Integrable Systems and Related Topics’. The full collection is available at http://www.emis.de/journals/SIGMA/kuznetsov.html 1Wishes to express thanks to the MISGAM project for support of his research visit to SISSA (Trieste) in 2006. mailto:J.C.Eilbeck@hw.ac.uk mailto:vze@ma.hw.ac.uk mailto:ep@bu.edu http://www.emis.de/journals/SIGMA/2007/045/ http://www.emis.de/journals/SIGMA/kuznetsov.html 2 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato algebraic equation for an affine plane model of the spectral curve (Section 2). This problem turns out to merge with Weierstrass’ question [16], Appendix C: Give a condition that an algebraic function f(x) must satisfy if among the integrals∫ F (x, f(x))dx, where F is a rational function of x and f(x), there exist some that can be transformed into elliptic integrals. This means that the curve X whose function field is C(x, f(x)) has a holomorphic differential which is elliptic, or equivalently, Jac X contains an elliptic curve. Weierstrass gave a condition in terms of the period matrix of X. Burchnall–Chaundy spectral curves of operators with elliptic coefficients automatically come with this reduction property, because the differential-algebra theory guarantees that all the coefficients of the spectral ring are doubly-periodic with respect to the same lattice; the PDEs mentioned above have solutions which are called ‘elliptic solitons’. A more special condition is that there be a ‘multiple’ reduction, namely another periodicity with respect to a (possibly non-isomorphic) lattice, in which case a curve of genus three has Jacobian isogenous to the product of three elliptic curves, and this is what we found in [9]. Another difficult question is whether the Jacobian is actually complex-isomorphic (without the principal polarization, since Jacobians are indecomposable) to the product of three ellip- tic curves. This is the case for the Klein curve [2]; we do not know if it is for the Halphen curve in [9]. In genus two, the situation is only apparently simpler: the question of complex- isomorphism to a product has only recently been settled [6], and that, in an analytic but not in an algebraic language; the question of loci of genus-2 curves which cover (n : 1) an ellip- tic curve remains largely open (despite recent progress, much of it based on computer algeb- ra [29]). In Section 3 of this paper, we provide progress towards such questions for the case of Lamé curves, which are hyperelliptic: the curves are known, at least for small genus, but we re- port a double reduction (equianharmonic case) that we have not seen elsewhere; in Section 4, we treat the genus 3 non-hyperelliptic case. Our contribution to a method consists of two parts. First, we provide algebraic maps between the higher-genus and the genus-one curves, by giving a search algorithm that identifies genus-1 integrals, the very question posed by Weier- strass. Second, using classical reduction theory as revisited by Martens [19], we write the theta function for a case of reduction in terms of genus-1 theta functions (or the associate sigma functions). We connect the two issues, by calculating explicitly the period matrix for some curve that admits reduction, given algebraically. It is a rare event, that a period matrix can be calculated from an algebraic equation, since the two in general are transcendental functions of each other. The method consists in the traditional one [2, 26, 27] of choosing a suitable homology basis and calculating the covering action on it. We believe our result on the period matrix of the Halphen curve and its reduction to be new. We also address the question of effectivization of the solution of the KP equation, or hierarchy; for this to be complete, how- ever, we need not only to reduce the theta function, but also the integrals of differentials of the second kind. We dedicate this small note to the memory of Vadim Kuznetsov. It was one of Vadim’s many projects to find a systematic answer to the problem of giving a canonical form for differential equations that have a basis of solutions polynomial in elliptic functions, generalizing the theory of elliptical harmonics given in the last chapter of [36], and which we have implemented in Section 3, to study the Lamé curves. In fact, one among us (VZE) co-authored one of the last papers of Vadim [37], devoted to a problem that arises in physics and was first identified by him; some of the ideas that we describe below were to be used in the further development of that subject. The loss of Vadim as friend and mathematician has affected us deeply. Personal Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 3 memories and testimonials are collected in other parts of this issue; here we only say that it was our great privilege to know him. 2 Elliptic covers Curves that admit a finite-to-one map to an elliptic curve (‘Elliptic Covers’) are special, and are a topic of extensive study in algebraic geometry and number theory. They have come to the fore in the theory of integrable equations, in particular their algebro-geometric solutions, for the reason that a yet more special class of such curves provides solutions that are doubly-periodic in one variable (‘Elliptic Solitons’). Our point of view on the latter class of curves is based on the Burchnall–Chaundy theory, via which, we connect the problem to the theory of ODOs with elliptic coefficients, much studied in the nineteenth century (Lamé, Hermite, Halphen, e.g.). It is only when such an operator has a large commutator that this theory connects with that of integrable equations. While the nineteenth-century point of view could not have phrased the special property in this way, the related question that was addressed was, when does the series expansion of solutions, in some suitable local coordinate on the curve (cf. Remark 1 in Subsection 3.1) terminate? The early work turned up important, but somehow ad hoc, properties that characterize algebro-geometric operators. 2.1 Challenge I Detect (larger) classes of algebro-geometric operators. We do not address this issue here. A CAS-based project would be to test whether the operator L = ∂3 − 4 3 n2℘∂ + 2n(n− 3)(4n + 3) 27 ℘′ has centralizer larger than C[L]: we ask the question since Halphen [14] noticed that the equation L = 0 has solutions that can be expressed in terms of elliptic functions. A more far-reaching project would construct elliptic-coefficient, finite-gap operators starting with curves that were shown to be elliptic covers, choosing a local coordinate whose suitable power is a function pulled back from the elliptic curve, to give rise to the commutative ring of ODOs, according to the Burchnall–Chaundy–Krichever inverse spectral theory. Curves of genus 3 that are known to be elliptic 3 : 1 and 2 : 1 covers, respectively, are Klein’s and Kowalevski’s quartic curves: zx3 + xy3 + yz3 = 0, (z2 − f2)2 = 4xy(ax + by)(cx + dy) in projective coordinates, with f2 a form of degree 2 in x and y (such that the quartic is non- singular). Notably, Klein’s curve (the only curve of genus 3 that has maximum number of automorphisms, 168) has Jacobian which is isomorphic to the product of three (isomorphic) elliptic curves [2, 23, 25]; Kowalevski, as part of her thesis, classified the (non-hyperelliptic) curves of genus 3 that cover 2 : 1 an elliptic curve (Klein’s curve being a special case). 2.2 Challenge II Find an equation for the spectral curve. This can be found once an algebro-geometric ODO is given. While the Burchnall–Chaundy theory allows one in principle to write the equation of the curve as a differential resultant [24], this would be unwieldy for all but the simplest cases: first, one would have to solve the ODEs 4 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato of commutation [L,B] = 0 for an unknown operator B of order co-prime with L (the simplest case of a two-generator centralizer); then, once B is known, calculate the determinant of the (m + n)× (m + n) matrix that detects the common eigenfunctions of L− λ and B − µ [8]. Instead, it is much more efficient to adapt Hermite’s (or Halphen’s) ansatz; in the case of Lamé’s equation, the case of solutions ‘written in finite form’ is treated in [36]; more generally, assume that an eigenfunction can be written in terms of: Ψ(x;α) = ekx n−1∑ j=0 aj(x, µ, k) dj dxj Φ(x;α) solving a given spectral problem: LΨ(x) = zΨ(x), where: Φ(x, α) = − σ(x− α) σ(α)σ(x) eζ(α)x and α is a complex number viewed as a point of the elliptic curve ν2 = 4µ3 − g2µ− g3. By expanding ℘(x) and φ(x, α) near x = 0 and comparing coefficients, the aj can be written in terms of (k, z) and taking the resultant of the compatibility conditions gives an equation of the spectral curve in the (k, z)-plane [7]. 2.3 Challenge III Express the eigenfunctions in terms of the theta function of the curve. 2.4 Challenge IV Turn on the KP (isospectral-)time deformations ti and express the time-dependence of the coefficients of the operators (in particular, one such coefficient is an exact solution of the KP equation). The expression of a KP solution in terms of elliptic functions is part of the programme sometimes referred to as ‘effectivization’. Our approach to such ‘challenges’ is two-fold: on one hand we use the explicit expression of the higher-genus sigma functions that were classically proposed by Klein and Baker, but revived, substantively generalized, and brought into usable form at first by one of the authors with collaborators (cf. e.g. [5]). On the other hand, we design computer algebra routines which allow us to read, for example, coefficients of multi-variable Taylor expansions far enough to obtain the equations for the curves and the KP solutions for small genus. In this paper we present classes of examples, originating with classical ansatzes of Lamé, Hermite and Halphen (specifically applied to elliptic solitons by Krichever [17]) as well as some detail of our general strategy. 3 Hyperelliptic case The Lamé equation has been vastly applied and vastly studied: we refer to [18] for general information, and to the classical treatise [36] for calculations that we shall need (for richer sources please consult [11], and [12] for different perspectives). Our point of view is that the potentials n(n + 1)℘(ξ) are finite-gap when n is an integer (an adaptation of Ince’s theorem to the complex-valued case) where the equation is written in Weierstrass form: d2w(ξ) dξ2 − n(n + 1)℘(ξ)w(ξ) = zw(ξ) (1) (for the rational form see [18] or [36]). Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 5 3.1 The spectral curve The Lamé curves are hyperelliptic since one of the commuting differential operators has order 2, and will have genus n for the operator in (1). There is no ‘closed form’ for general n, but the equations have been found by several authors and methods, cf. specifically [3, 4] and references therein (work by Eilbeck et al., by Enol’skii and N.A. Kostov, by A. Treibich and by J.-L. Verdier is there referenced), [13, 18, 21, 34]. In particular, [18] adopts a method of inserting ansatzes in the equation and comparing expansions similar to ours, and tabulates the equations for 1 ≤ g ≤ 8 (in principle, a recursive calculation will produce them for any genus), so we do not present our table (1 ≤ g ≤ 10), but use g = 3 to exemplify our treatment of reduction in Subsection 3.2 below. Remark 1. To motivate the project that Vadim Kuznetsov had wanted to design, as recalled in the introduction, we mention in sketch the steps of our strategy to find the spectral curves. The key ansatz is the finite expansion of the eigenfunctions; we used a formula from [36] in the case of odd n and the (equivalent) table in [1] for even n just for bookkeeping purposes; respectively, w(ξ) = √ ℘(ξ)− e1 √ ℘(ξ)− e2 (n−3)/2∑ r=0 br(℘(ξ)− e3)n/2−r−1, w(ξ) = n/2∑ r=0 Ar(−℘(ξ))r. It is then a matter of finding the coefficients br, Ar. For this, we insert w in (1) and expand in powers of ℘(ξ) or (℘(ξ)− ei)1/2, depending on the various cases; we also substitute for the ei in terms of the modular functions g2 and g3. By comparing coefficients in the expansions we obtain a set of equations for the br or Ar, and we solve the compatibility condition of these equations. The Lamé curve fs(z) 3∏ i=1 fi(z) is the product of 4 factors, one fs(z) symmetric in the ei, i.e. just depending on g2 and g3, and three fi(z) which depend on one of the ei and g2 and g3, which we found in turn. At the end, to be sure, for a given root z of one of these factors, we can determine the br, resp. Ar up to a common factor, and write the eigenfunction as a polynomial in ℘(ξ). The finiteness condition we used in expanding the eigenfunctions (a sort of Halphen’s ansatz, cf. Section 1) characterizes finite-gap operators, in Burchnall–Chaundy terms, the ones that have large centralizers. It is worth quoting a speculation [28] p. 34 which regards finiteness in the local parameter z−1: ‘We do not know an altogether satisfying description of the desired class C(n); roughly speaking, it consists of the operators whose formal Baker functions converge for large z.’ 3.2 Cover equations and reduction Even though the Lamé curves are elliptic covers a priori, it is not easy to find the elliptic reduction, which will correspond to a holomorphic differential of smallest order at the point ∞ in (w, z)-coordinates2; by running through a linear-algebra elimination for a basis of holomorphic differentials, expressed in terms of rational functions of (w, z) (here again expansions provide the initial guess, lest the programs exhaust computational power), we exhibited the elliptic differential for all our curves. Note that this gives the degree of the cover, not known a priori. It is worth pointing out that more than n covers might be found (for genus n): indeed, according to a classical result (Bolza, Poincaré, cf. [15] where a modern proof is given), if an abelian surface contains more than one elliptic subgroup, then it contains infinitely many. Note, however, that it can only contain a finite number for any given degree (the intersection number with a principal polarization) because the Néron–Severi group is finitely generated [15]. This degree translates 2A different and very efficient method was developed by Takemura in the beautiful series [31, 32, 33, 34] where elliptic-hyperelliptic formulas are found by comparing the monodromies on the two curves. 6 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato into the degree of the elliptic cover. We are not claiming to have found all of them, or that those which we found be minimal. For example, for genus n = 2 (where the reduction is known since the nineteenth century), finding fs = z2 − 3g2, fi = z + 3ei, in expanded form the curve is: w2 = −(3g2 − z2)(27g3 − 4z3 + 9zg2). The holomorphic differential is d℘ ℘′ = 3z dz w , and a second reduction (predicted by a classical theorem of Picard that splits any abelian subvariety up to isogeny) is given by the algebraic map to: ℘′2 = 4℘3 −G2℘−G3, G2 = 27 4 (g3 2 + 9g2 3), G3 = 243 8 g3(3g2 3 − g3 2), ℘ = −1 4 (4z3 − 9g2z − 9g3), ℘′ = −1 2 w (4z2 − 3g2). This map induces the following reduction of the holomorphic differential to an elliptic diffe- rential: d℘ ℘′ = −3 d w . Notice then that in the equianharmonic case g2 = 0 the curve is singular, w2 = −(4z3−27g3)z2 and we have the following birational map to the elliptic curve: ℘′2 = 4℘3 −G3, ℘ = −z 4 , ℘′ = −2w 4z , G3 = −27 64 g3 and differential d℘/℘′ = zdz/2w. This motivated us to investigate the equianharmonic case further. What we believe to be new is the following observation. We found it surprising that there always be at least a second reduction in the case the elliptic curve is equianharmonic (the unique one that has an automorphism of order three), but see no theoretical reason to expect that. If this were to hold for all n, one could further ask whether these curves support KdV solutions elliptic both in the first and second time variables (a private communication by A. Veselov gives such an indication, to the best of our understanding). The issue of periodicity in the second KdV variable (‘time’) was put forth in [30], and recently reprised in [10], but the double periodicity does not seem to have been addressed so far. We exhibit three covers in the g = 3 case (N.B. The third one is not, in general, over the equianharmonic curve); as well, we found two covers in the equianharmonic, n = 4, 5 cases, but we only provide a summary table which suggests the general pattern for two covers in the equianharmonic case. For n = 3, fs = z, fi = z2 − 6zei + 45e2 i − 15g2, the curve is w2 = ( 2376 z3g3 − 36450 zg2g3 + 504 g2z 4 − 91125 g3 2 − 16 z6 + 3375 g2 3 − 4185 g2 2z2 ) z, the first cover is given by the algebraic map ℘ = −(−84375g3 2 + 2278125g2 3 + 303750g3g2z − 3375g2 2z 2 − 27000z3g3 + 360z4g2 + 16z6) 36 z (−75g2 + 4z2)2 , ℘′ = w (16z6 − 1800z4g2 − 16875g2 2z 2 + 421875g3 2 + 54000z3g3 − 11390625g2 3) 108 z2 (−75g2 + 4z2)3 . Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 7 This map induces the following reduction of the holomorphic differential to an elliptic diffe- rential: d℘ ℘′ = −3(4z2 − 15g2) dz w . In the equianharmonic case the above reduces to the following cover of the curve ℘′2 = 4℘3 − g3: ℘ = − 1 576 (16z6 − 27000z3g3 + 2278125g2 3) z5 , ℘′ = 1 6912 w(16z6 + 54000z3g3 − 11390625g2 3) z8 . This map induces the following reduction of the holomorphic differential to an elliptic diffe- rential: d℘ ℘′ = −12 z2dz w . Continuing in the equianharmonic case, the second cover is given by the following algebraic map to: ℘′2 = 4℘3 −G3, G3 = 387420489 4 g5 3, ℘ = −1 6 3645g2 3 − 1080z3g3 + 16z6 z , ℘′ = 1 32 w(−729g2 3 − 432z3g3 + 16z6) z2 . This map induces the following reduction of the holomorphic differential to an elliptic diffe- rential: d℘ ℘′ = −10 dz w . The third cover is given by the algebraic map to the (non-equianharmonic) curve ℘′2 = 4℘3 −G2℘−G3 ≡ 4 (℘− 198g3) (12717g2 3 + 198℘g3 + ℘2), G2 = 105948g2 3, G3 = 10071864g3 3, ℘ = 198g3 − 4z3, ℘′ = 4wz. This map induces the following reduction of the holomorphic differential to an elliptic diffe- rential: d℘ ℘′ = −3 zdz w . For the curves: n fs fi 1 fs = 1 fi = z − ei 2 fs = z2 − 3g2 fi = z + 3ei 3 fs = z fi = z2 − 6zei + 45e2 i − 15g2 4 fs = z3 − 52g2z + 560g3 fi = z2 + 10zei − 7g2 − 35e2 i 5 fs = z2 − 27g2 fi = z3 − 15z2e2 + (315e2 2 − 132g2)z + 675e3 2 + 540g3 8 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato we summarize the equianharmonic covers in the table below (note: there is some small numerical discrepancy, e.g., for n = 2 our choice of normalization corresponds to the −2w of this table, but we find it more useful to have the normalization below for recognizing a pattern). The pairs appearing in the second column are the orders of the commuting differential operators. n (−,−) ℘ ℘′ d℘ ℘′ G2 G3 2 (2,5) 9g3 − 4z3 4wz2 −3 dz w 486g2 3 729g3 3 3 (2,7) 198g3 − 4z3 4wz −3z dz w 10594g2 3 10071864g3 3 4 (2,9) 1430g3 − 4z3 4w −3z2 dz w 6342300g2 3 3011499000g3 3 5 (2,11) 6435g3 − 4z3 4 w z −3z3 dz w 28674000g2 3 14791410000g3 3 In factorized form the coefficients are (−,−) ℘ ℘′ d℘ ℘′ G2 G3 (2,5) 32g3 − 4z3 4wz2 −3 dz w 2 · 35g2 3 36g3 3 (2,7) 2 · 32 · 11g3 − 4z3 4wz −3z dz w 22 · 35 · 109g2 3 23 · 36 · 11 · 157g3 3 (2,9) 2 · 5 · 11 · 13g3 − 4z3 4w −3z2 dz w 22 · 37 · 52 · 29g2 3 23 · 311 · 53 · 17g3 3 (2,11) 32 · 5 · 11 · 13g3 − 4z3 4 w z −3z3 dz w 24 · 35 · 53 · 59g2 3 24 · 36 · 54 · 2029g3 3 The hyperelliptic curves are singular for g = 2, 5, 8; this is important because it makes it possible to explicitly calculate the motion of the poles of the KdV solutions (Calogero–Moser–Krichever system). When all the KdV or KP differentials (of increasing order of pole) are reducible, of which case we have examples in genus 3, both hyperelliptic as we have seen, and non (Section 4), the Calogero–Moser–Krichever system is periodic in all time directions; we believe this situation had not been previously detected. 3.3 The theta function The next challenge we discuss is the calculation of the coefficients of the ODOs in terms of theta functions; while we do not present a result that could not have been derived by classical methods, we streamlined a two-step procedure: firstly, we use Martens’ thorough calculation of the action of the symplectic group on a reducible period matrix [19], to write theta as a sum, then we use transformation rules for the action under the symplectic group. The step which is not obvious however precedes all this and is the calculation of the explicit period matrix based on a reduced basis of holomorphic differentials. We give the result for one specific curve as an example. For the curve of genus 2: w2 = (z2 − ξ2 1)(z 2 − ξ2 2)(z 2 − ξ2 3), where we assume 0 < ξ1 < ξ2 < ξ3, which is easily related to the form given by Jacobi for the case of reduction: w2 = z(1− z)(z − a)(z − b)(z − ab), Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 9 our calculation shows that the associated theta function can be put in the form Θ ([ v1 v2 ] , τ ) = 1 2 θ3 ( 1 2 v1, 1 2 τ1 ) θ3 ( 1 2 v1 − v2, 1 2 τ2 ) + 1 2 θ4 ( 1 2 v1, 1 2 τ1 ) θ4 ( 1 2 v1 − v2, 1 2 τ2 ) , where the θi are the standard g = 1 Jacobi theta functions, τ1 is the τ associated with the elliptic curve w2 1 = (x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) and τ2 is the τ associated with the elliptic curve w2 2 = x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3). These two τ ’s can be expressed explicitly in terms of elliptic integrals of the first kind K. We adopt the homology basis shown in Fig. 1. a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 −e 3 −e 2 −e 1 e 1 e 2 e 3 a b Figure 1. We find that 2Ω1,1 = ∫ a1 dz w = −ω2, 2Ω1,2 = ∫ a2 dz w = 2ω2, 2Ω2,1 = ∫ a1 zdz w = ω1, 2Ω2,2 = ∫ a2 zdz w = 0, 2Ω′ 1,1 = ∫ b1 dz w = 0, 2Ω′ 1,2 = ∫ b2 dz w = ω′ 2, 2Ω′ 2,1 = ∫ b1 zdz w = 2ω′ 1, 2Ω2,2 = ∫ b2 zdz w = ω′ 1, where the ωi are calculated from the the homology basis shown in Figs. 2 and 3, ω1 = ∫ ξ2 3 ξ2 2 dx w1 , ω′ 1 = ∫ ξ2 2 ξ2 1 dx w1 , ω2 = ∫ ξ2 3 ξ2 2 dx w2 , ω′ 2 = ∫ ξ2 2 ξ2 1 dx w2 . a 1 b 1 0 e 1 2 e 2 2 e 3 2 a b Figure 2. a 1 b 1 ∞e 1 2 e 2 2 e 3 2 a b Figure 3. 10 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato Proof Using the change of variable z2 = x, 2zdz = dx, we have 2Ω1,1 = ∫ a1 dz w = ∫ −e2 −e3 2dz w = ∫ e2 2 e2 3 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = − ∫ e2 3 e2 2 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = −ω2, 2Ω1,2 = ∫ a2 dz w = ∫ 0 −e1 2dz w + ∫ e1 0 2dz w = 2 ∫ e2 1 0 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = = 2 ∫ e2 3 e2 2 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = 2ω2, 2Ω2,1 = ∫ a1 zdz w = ∫ −e2 −e3 2zdz w = ∫ e2 2 e2 3 dx√ (x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = − ∫ e2 3 e2 2 dx√ (x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = −ω1, 2Ω2,2 = ∫ a2 zdz w = ∫ 0 −ξ 2zdz w + ∫ ξ 0 2zdz w = 0 by symmetry under z → −z, and 2Ω′ 1,1 = ∫ b1 dz w = 0 (by symmetry), 2Ω′ 1,2 = ∫ b2 dz w = ∫ e2 e1 2dz w = ∫ e2 2 e2 1 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = ω2, 2Ω′ 2,1 = ∫ b1 zdz w = 2 ∫ e2 e1 2zdz w = 2ω1 (as for Ω′ 2,2), 2Ω′ 2,2 = ∫ b2 zdz w = ∫ e2 e1 2zdz w = ∫ e2 2 e2 1 dx√ (x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = ω1. The ω can be calculated by standard integrals ω1 = ∫ e2 3 e2 2 dx√ (x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = 2i√ ξ2 3 − ξ2 1 K (√ ξ2 3 − ξ2 2 ξ2 3 − ξ2 1 ) , ω′ 1 = ∫ e2 2 e2 1 dx√ (x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = 2√ ξ2 3 − ξ2 1 K (√ ξ2 2 − ξ2 1 ξ2 3 − ξ2 1 ) , ω2 = ∫ e2 3 e2 2 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = 2i√ (ξ2 3 − ξ2 1)ξ 2 2 K (√ (ξ2 3 − ξ2 2)ξ 2 1 (ξ2 3 − ξ2 1)ξ 2 2 ) , ω′ 2 = ∫ e2 2 e2 1 dx√ x(x− ξ2 1)(x− ξ2 2)(x− ξ2 3) = 2√ (ξ2 3 − ξ2 1)ξ 2 2 K (√ (ξ2 2 − ξ2 1)ξ 2 3 (ξ2 3 − ξ2 1)ξ 2 2 ) so the period matrices we obtain can be written in the form Ω = [ −1 2 ω2 ω2 ω1 0 ] , Ω′ =  0 1 2 ω′ 2 ω′ 1 1 2 ω′ 1  , Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 11 so τ = 2 ω1 ω′ 1 ω1 ω′ 1 ω1 ω′ 1 2 ω2 ω′ 2 + 1 2 ω1 ω′ 1  = 2τ1 τ1 τ1 1 2 τ2 + 1 2 τ1  . Following Martens, if we define m = [ 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 ] then [ ω1 ω′ 1 ] ·m = 2 [ 0 1 ] · [ Ω Ω′] . Now define J = [ 02 I2 −I2 02 ] , T =  0 0 2 1 1 −2 0 2 0 −1 0 1 0 0 1 0  , where T is symplectic, T · J · T t = J , and m · T−1 = [ 1 0 0 0 0 1 −2 0 ] is in (Martens) standard form, and m · J ·mt = [ 0 −2 2 0 ] shows that the Hopf number is 2. The transformed matrix τ̃ is calculated by first calculating the 2× 4 matrix[ A B ] = [ I2 τ ] · (J · T )−1 then τ̃ = A−1B =  1 2 τ1 1 2 1 2 − 1 2(2 + τ2)  , where τi = ω′ i/ωi. For this matrix, we use Martens’ transformation formula, generalized to non-zero characte- ristics: Θ 0 0 1 2 0    −1 2 v1 − v1 − 2v2 2(2 + τ2)  , τ̃  = Θ 0 1 2 (−v1 2 , τ1 2 ) Θ [ 0 0 ]( v1 − 2v2 2 + τ2 ,− 2 2 + τ2 ) + Θ [ 0 0 ]( −v1 2 , τ1 2 ) Θ 1 2 0 (v1 − 2v2 2 + τ2 ,− 2 2 + τ2 ) = 1 2 θ3 ( 1 2 v1, 1 2 τ1 ) θ3 ( 1 2 v1 − v2, 1 2 τ2 ) + 1 2 θ4 ( 1 2 v1, 1 2 τ1 ) θ4 ( 1 2 v1 − v2, 1 2 τ2 ) , in Jacobi notation, concluding the proof. 12 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato 4 Genus three In [9], we calculated, using Halphen’s ansatz as described in Section 1 (cf. [35] as well), the Halphen spectral curve, trigonal of genus 3, for the operator: L = ∂3 − 15℘∂ − (15/2)℘′ = 0: w3 = ( z2 + 25 4 g3 )( z2 − 135 4 g3 ) . We showed that this curve not only admits reduction, but also has Jacobian isogenous to the product of three (isomorphic) elliptic curves. Here we consider the covers in the slightly more general genus 3 curve w3 = (z2 − λ2 1)(z 2 + λ2 2), λ1, λ2 ∈ R, to curves of genus 1 and 2 and derive the corresponding τ matrices and reduction theory. On occasion we indicate results for the special case λ2 1 = (135/3)g3, λ2 2 = (25/4)g3: C̃3 : w3 = ( z2 + 25 4 g3 )( z2 − 135 4 g3 ) . This genus 3 curve covers the equianharmonic elliptic curve (℘′)2 = 4℘3 − g3 in three different ways and all entries to the period matrices are expressible in terms of the modulus of this curve. For the specific curve C̃3, we have three covers, all covering (℘′)2 = 4℘3 − g3, as follows. The cover π1 is given by ℘ = w2 25 (16z2 + 8100g3) (4z2 − 135g3)2 , ℘′ = 2 125 z(16z4 − 19000z2g3 − 759375g2 3) (4z2 − 135g3)2 with holomorphic differentials given by dz w = 3 5 d℘ ℘′ . The cover π2 is given by ℘ = 3 √ 5w 20 3 √ −g3 , ℘′ = 4z2 − 55g3 80 3 √ −g3 with holomorphic differentials given by zdz w2 = 3d℘ 4 3 √ 5 6 √ −g3℘′ . The cover π3 is given by ℘ = − 1 4800 w 3 √ 5(64z6 − 80 g3z 4 − 5300g2 3z 2 − 30375g3 3) (−g3)4/3z2(4 z2 + 25 g3) , ℘′ = −ip10 1152000(4z2 + 25g3)z3g3 2 , where p10 = ( − 61509375 g3 5 − 15187500z2g3 4 − 700000z4g3 3 − 240000z6g3 2 − 19200z8g3 + 1024z10 )√ 15 with holomorphic differentials given by dz w2 = id℘ √ 15 52/3 250℘(−g3)2/3 . Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 13 The general curve C3 is a covering of the equianharmonic elliptic curve C∞ given by the equation ν2 = 4µ3 + (λ2 1 + λ2 2) 2. The cover π is given by µ = w, ν = 2z2 + λ2 2 − λ2 1, with holomorphic differentials given by 2zdz 3w2 = dµ ν . 4.1 Reduction In this section we follow a similar approach to that of Matsumoto [20] in a genus 4 problem, who developed earlier results of Shiga [27] and Picard [22]. Write the equation of C in the form w3 = 4∏ k=1 (z − λk) = (z − λ1)(z + λ1)(z − iλ2)(z + iλ2). We fix the following lexicographical ordering of independent canonical holomorphic differentials of C3, du1 = dz/w, du2 = dz/w2, du3 = zdz/w2, and will define the period matrix based on the branch cuts given in Figs. 4 and 5. a 1 a 2 a 3 λ 1−λ 1 −iλ 2 iλ 2 a b Figure 4. a 1 b 1 λ 1 iλ 2 a b Figure 5. 4.2 Riemann period matrix We introduce the following vector notation: x = (x1, x2, x3)T = (∮ a1 du1, . . . , ∮ a3 du1 )T , b = (b1, b2, b3)T = (∮ a1 du2, . . . , ∮ a3 du2 )T , c = (c1, c2, c3)T = (∮ a1 du3, . . . , ∮ a3 du3 )T . 14 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato Then the matrices of a and b-periods read A = (∮ ak dui ) i,k=1,...,3 = (x, b, c), (2) B = (∮ bk dui ) i,k=1,...,3 = (ρHx, ρ2Hb, ρ2Hc), (3) where H = diag(1, 1,−1). The Riemann bilinear relation says xT Hb = xT Hc = 0. The Riemann period matrix τ = AB−1 belongs to the Siegel upper half-space H3. By using the symmetries of the problem we can express all the x period integrals in terms of the two integrals (see Fig. 6) I = ∫ λ1 0 dz w , J = ∫ iλ2 0 dz w . 0 λ 1 iλ 2 I J Figure 6. Paths of I and J integrals on sheet 1. To get the corresponding integrals on the other sheets we multiply by ρ and ρ2 respectively. The a and b contours can be constructed by pasting together various combinations of these integrals and their reflections in the real and imaginary axes. We have x1 = (ρ2 − 1)(I − J), x2 = −x1, x3 = −2J + ρ(J − I) + 2ρ2I + ρ(J − I), where ρ = exp{2iπ/3}. In the case when λ2 2/λ2 1 = 5/27, the integrals simplify further, since I = −J(1 + 2ρ)/3. In this case (which we assume in all that follows) we have x1 = 2J(ρ + 1), x2 = −x1, x3 = 2J(ρ− 2). So we have [ (Ω′)T ΩT ] =  −2 J 2J 2J(3ρ + 1) 2Jρ1 −2Jρ1 2J(ρ− 2) −ρ1b1 −ρ1b2 ρ1b3 b1 b2 b3 −(ρ + 1)c1 −(ρ + 1)c2 ρ1c3 c1 c2 c3  , Spectral Curves of Operators with Elliptic Coefficients 15 where ρ1 = ρ + 1. We define τ = ((Ω′)T )−1ΩT . We find after much simplification, using the properties of ρ and the Riemann relations, that τ = 1 79 62ρ− 13 17ρ + 13 −5ρ + 38 17ρ + 13 62ρ− 13 5ρ− 38 −5ρ + 38 5ρ− 38 45ρ + 53  . This matrix [(Ω′)T ΩT ] satisfies the reduction criteria as defined by Martens [19], since if we define Π = [ 2J 2Jρ ] , H = [ 1 0 0 ] , then H · [ (Ω′)T ΩT ] = Π ·M, where M = [ −1 1 1 1 −1 −2 0 0 3 1 −1 1 ] . We can transform M to standard form using the symplectic matrix S =  1 3 −1 0 −6 2 0 −1 −1 0 1 −1 0 1 0 −3 −1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 −2 0 2 3 −1  , since M.S = [ −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 −5 0 0 ] . Following Martens, the corresponding transformed τ is τ̃ = τ · S · JT =  1 5 + 1 5 ρ 1 5 0 1 5 1 2 + 1 5 ρ 1 2 ρ 0 1 2 ρ 3 2 ρ + 1 2  . Expanding a theta function defined with this τ̃ , again following Martens, we will get a sum of 5 products of g = 1 theta functions with g = 2 theta functions. The g = 1 theta functions will have tau value τ = (1/5)(1 + ρ) and the g = 2 theta functions will have a tau of τ = 5 0 0 1   1 2 + 1 5 ρ 1 2 ρ 1 2 ρ 3 2 ρ + 1 2  5 0 0 1  = 5 ρ + 25 2 5 2 ρ 5 2 ρ 3 2 ρ + 1 2  . 16 J.C. Eilbeck, V.Z. Enolski and E. Previato Again following Martens, we can reduce this 2× 2 matrix to standard form to get eventually ˜̃τ =  11 20 + 1 20 ρ −1 4 −1 4 3 2 + 1 4 ρ  . Expanding each of the transformed genus 2 theta functions with this theta will give a product of genus 1 theta functions with τ = (1/20)(11 + ρ) and genus 1 theta functions with τ = 16(3/2+(1/4) ρ). 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Gen. 38 (2005), 7831–7849, cond-mat/0407501. http://arxiv.org/abs/solv-int/9809005 http://arxiv.org/abs/solv-int/9705018 http://arxiv.org/abs/math-ph/0508066 http://arxiv.org/abs/math-ph/0309005 http://arxiv.org/abs/math.AG/0008025 http://arxiv.org/abs/math.AG/0107142 http://arxiv.org/abs/math.CA/0103077 http://arxiv.org/abs/math.CA/0112179 http://arxiv.org/abs/mmath.CA/0201208 http://arxiv.org/abs/math.CA/0406141 http://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0407501 1 Introduction 2 Elliptic covers 2.1 Challenge I 2.2 Challenge II 2.3 Challenge III 2.4 Challenge IV 3 Hyperelliptic case 3.1 The spectral curve 3.2 Cover equations and reduction 3.3 The theta function 4 Genus three 4.1 Reduction 4.2 Riemann period matrix 5 Conclusions References

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