Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle
This article presents a recently recognized type of Trzciniec Cultural Circe (TCC) funerary structure, which over the last decade has been excavated in the cemeteries of Bukivna, Nieciecz Włościańska, and has also been identified during the study of archival material from Komariv. These constru...
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irk-123456789-1875062022-12-31T01:26:30Z Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle Romaniszyn, J. Makarowicz, P. Дискусії This article presents a recently recognized type of Trzciniec Cultural Circe (TCC) funerary structure, which over the last decade has been excavated in the cemeteries of Bukivna, Nieciecz Włościańska, and has also been identified during the study of archival material from Komariv. These constructions are characterized by the placement of stones in the corners and along the sides of a rectangular plan. Due to the lack of skeletal remains, these structures are sometimes interpreted as symbolic graves (cenotaphs). Based on multidisciplinary methods, including radiocarbon, geochemical and geological analyzes, excavation, as well as study of archival documentation, the authors can state these features occurred in different enclaves of the TCC and were an important component of the funeral rite during the classical stage of the development of this cultural formation. Their form, structure, location, and inventory also indicate that these unique features probably played an important and universal role in the varied and multidimensional TCC funeral ceremonies. Стаття має на меті представити комплексний аналіз поховальних споруд, виявлених нещодавно у курганах тшинецького культурного кола. Ці об’єкти мають прямокутну форму, а камені розташовані зазвичай в кутах, посередині боків або вздовж стін, створюючи унікальні конструкції з чітко окресленими внутрішніми просторами. Однак функція цих об’єктів не зрозуміла до кінця. Малі розміри об’єктів ускладнюють їхню фіксацію із використанням традиційних методів розкопок. Більшість із цих об’єктів було виявлено протягом останнього десятиліття, коли для археологів стали доступні нові методи документації та інструменти для досліджень. Ці споруди відомі лише з курганних могильників, також у їхньому контексті були задокументовані залишки кремації in situ. Їхня поява підтверджує різноманітність та складність поховальних обрядів жителів тшинецького культурного кола. На сьогодні відомо вісім конструкцій цього типу. Чотири із них (курган 1/I/2010 — об’єкт 3; курган 7/I/2014 — об’єкти 6 і 7; курган 2/I/2010/2012 — об’єкт 1) були зафіксовані на могильнику у Буківні під час польсько-української експедиції, у якій брали участь науковці з Університету ім. А. Міцкевича у Познані, Національної академії наук України в Києві та Прикарпатського університету ім. В . Стефаника в Івано-Франківську. Вивчення архівних матеріалів розкопок довоєнного часу, проведених Т. Сулімирським та Й. Грабовським у Комарові, дало змогу виявити ще три потенційні кенотафи (курган 34 — об’єкти A та B; курган 45 — об’єкт 1). Одну споруду цього типу (поховання 2) також було розкопано у Nieciecz Włościańska у північно-східному анклаві тшинецького культурного кола під час нещодавніх рятівних досліджень. Завдяки радіовуглецевому аналізу авторами встановлено хронологію цих об’єктів. Отримані радіовуглецеві дати свідчать про те, що досліджувані об’єкти були споруджені під час класичного етапу розвитку тшинецького культурного кола, що відноситься до 18—16 ст. до н. е. Це також підтверджено археологічним матеріалом, знайденим в межах цих об’єктів. Аналіз функції та символіки цих об’єктів свідчить про те, що вони могли виконувати роль поховань. Про це також свідчить геохімічний аналіз зразків ґрунту з могильника у Буківні. Однак через брак остеологічного матеріалу для більшості із цих об’єктів, цей аспект залишається овіяним таємницею і вимагає додаткових досліджень. Незважаючи на це, форма, розташування в курганах та поховальний інвентар цих об’єктів свідчать про те, що вони відігравали важливу роль у поховальних обрядах населення тшинецького культурного кола. 2021 Article Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle / J. Romaniszyn, P. Makarowicz // Археологія і давня історія України: Зб. наук. пр. — К.: ІА НАН України, 2021. — Вип. 2 (39). — С. 360-374. — Бібліогр.: 58 назв. — англ. 2227-4952 DOI: 10.37445/adiu.2021.02.24 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/187506 903.5(4)”637” en Археологія і давня історія України Інститут археології НАН України |
| institution |
Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| collection |
DSpace DC |
| language |
English |
| topic |
Дискусії Дискусії |
| spellingShingle |
Дискусії Дискусії Romaniszyn, J. Makarowicz, P. Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle Археологія і давня історія України |
| description |
This article presents a recently recognized type of
Trzciniec Cultural Circe (TCC) funerary structure,
which over the last decade has been excavated in the
cemeteries of Bukivna, Nieciecz Włościańska, and has
also been identified during the study of archival material
from Komariv. These constructions are characterized
by the placement of stones in the corners and along
the sides of a rectangular plan. Due to the lack of skeletal
remains, these structures are sometimes interpreted
as symbolic graves (cenotaphs). Based on multidisciplinary
methods, including radiocarbon, geochemical
and geological analyzes, excavation, as well as study
of archival documentation, the authors can state these
features occurred in different enclaves of the TCC and
were an important component of the funeral rite during
the classical stage of the development of this cultural
formation. Their form, structure, location, and inventory
also indicate that these unique features probably
played an important and universal role in the varied
and multidimensional TCC funeral ceremonies. |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Romaniszyn, J. Makarowicz, P. |
| author_facet |
Romaniszyn, J. Makarowicz, P. |
| author_sort |
Romaniszyn, J. |
| title |
Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle |
| title_short |
Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle |
| title_full |
Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle |
| title_fullStr |
Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle |
| title_sort |
real burials or cenotaphs? a study of the mysterious under-mound funerary constructions of the trzciniec cultural circle |
| publisher |
Інститут археології НАН України |
| publishDate |
2021 |
| topic_facet |
Дискусії |
| url |
http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/187506 |
| citation_txt |
Real Burials or Cenotaphs? A Study of the Mysterious Under-mound Funerary Constructions of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle / J. Romaniszyn, P. Makarowicz // Археологія і давня історія України: Зб. наук. пр. — К.: ІА НАН України, 2021. — Вип. 2 (39). — С. 360-374. — Бібліогр.: 58 назв. — англ. |
| series |
Археологія і давня історія України |
| work_keys_str_mv |
AT romaniszynj realburialsorcenotaphsastudyofthemysteriousundermoundfuneraryconstructionsofthetrzciniecculturalcircle AT makarowiczp realburialsorcenotaphsastudyofthemysteriousundermoundfuneraryconstructionsofthetrzciniecculturalcircle |
| first_indexed |
2025-07-16T09:05:12Z |
| last_indexed |
2025-07-16T09:05:12Z |
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1837793765787435008 |
| fulltext |
360 ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2021, вип. 2 (39)
УДК 903.5(4)”637” DOI: 10.37445/adiu.2021.02.24
J. Romaniszyn, P. Makarowicz
REAL BURIALS OR CENOTAPHS? A STUDY OF THE MYSTERI-
OUS UNDER-MOUND FUNERARY CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE
TRZCINIEC CULTURAL CIRCLE
This article presents a recently recognized type of
Trzciniec Cultural Circe (TCC) funerary structure,
which over the last decade has been excavated in the
cemeteries of Bukivna, Nieciecz Włościańska, and has
also been identified during the study of archival mate-
rial from Komariv. These constructions are character-
ized by the placement of stones in the corners and along
the sides of a rectangular plan. Due to the lack of skel-
etal remains, these structures are sometimes interpreted
as symbolic graves (cenotaphs). Based on multidisci-
plinary methods, including radiocarbon, geochemical
and geological analyzes, excavation, as well as study
of archival documentation, the authors can state these
features occurred in different enclaves of the TCC and
were an important component of the funeral rite during
the classical stage of the development of this cultural
formation. Their form, structure, location, and inven-
tory also indicate that these unique features probably
played an important and universal role in the varied
and multidimensional TCC funeral ceremonies.
Keywords: funeral rite, under-barrow architecture,
funeral construction, Trzciniec Cultural Circle, bar-
rows.
Introduction. The Middle Bronze Age
Trzciniec Cultural Circle (TCC) (Makarowicz
2010a, fig. 1) barrows, which are monuments that
form their own landscapes and are usually highly
visible in the field, hide various under-mound
features, the function of which is not limited to
the funeral sphere. Sepulchral structures inside
the barrows are frequently discovered in different
enclaves of this cultural formation (among others
Sulimirski 1968; Berezanskaya 1972; Kempisty
1978; Artemenko 1987; Górski 1996; 2010; Taras,
Florek 2003, p. 63—69; Makarowicz 2010a,
p. 228—242; 2019), and in recent years have been
more broadly interpreted (e. g. Taras, Florek
2003, p. 63—69; Makarowicz 2010a, p. 382—383;
2019; Górski 2010; Piotrowska 2012; Niculică,
Boghian 2015).
In this article, the authors consider a specific
type of funeral construction sometimes interpret-
ed as a cenotaph (symbolic grave) in which human
remains are typically not documented. These con-
structions occur mainly in the southeast enclave
of the TCC, within the Komarów Culture (KC)
territory (Sulimirski 1968; Makarowicz, Lysenko,
Kočkin 2013a, 2013b; Makarowicz et al. 2016a;
Lysenko et al. 2015). Data from the recent exca-
vation in Bukivna (Makarowicz, Lysenko, Kočkin
2013a; 2013b; 2020; Lysenko et al. 2015), analy-
sis and reinterpretation of archival information
from the eponymic cemetery in Komariv (Roma-
niszyn 2018), and results from research in the
South Podlasie of northeast Poland (Kiełbasińska
et al. 2012) allow a comprehensive examination
of this type of funeral structure. The goal of this
article is to address the question of the role these
under-barrow features played in ritual activity of
the TCC societies. Were they, in fact, cenotaphs
or perhaps real burials? Furthermore, the au-
thors will present a discussion of the chronology
of these constructions, and their importance and
symbolism within TCC communities.
It is worth mentioning that these so-called
cenotaphs are difficult to record during excava-
tion. These funerary structures are relatively
‘architecturally fragile and slight’ and they do
not manifest themselves in the field as, for ex-
ample, wooden, stone-wooden, or stone mortuary
houses, which are known from the most impor-
tant «Trzciniec» cemeteries (e. g. Florek, Taras
2003, p. 63—69; Makarowicz 2010a, p. 282—283;
2019). Therefore, it seems that the frequency of
this sepulchral structure is strongly understated © J. ROMANISZYN, P. MAKAROWICZ, 2021
361ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2021, вип. 2 (39)
Romaniszyn, Ya., Makarowicz, P. Real burials or cenotaphs? A study of the mysterious under-mound funerary...
in the current literature. This article is the first
attempt to interpret the described construction,
which also reflects the various and complex fu-
neral rites of the TCC societies.
Database presentation. The problem of the
discussed feature type in TCC barrows has not
been taken into account in the subject literature.
The authors focused on specific features that are
similar in form and building material, because
they duplicate and repeat a particular architec-
tural scheme. This refers specifically to construc-
tions consisting of single stones arranged on a
quadrilateral plan. These stones are usually situ-
ated in the corners, in the middle of the sides,
or along the walls of the constructions, creating
unique structures containing a small space inside.
Eight features of this type have been documented
presently in the TCC, most from well recognized
contexts. Four come from Bukivna, upper Dni-
ester river basin, and were registered during ex-
cavations by the Polish-Ukrainian archaeological
expedition (Makarowicz, Lysenko, Kočkin 2013a;
2013b; (eds.) 2021; Lysenko et al. 2015). Three
similar constructions were discovered during re-
search in Komarów prior to World War II in what
was then Eastern Galicia (Sulimirski 1936; 1939;
1964; 1968), and one of these features in Nieciecz
Włościańska (Southern Podlasie) was explored
during recent investment research (Kiełbasińska
et al. 2012). Additionally, after analysing plans
and descriptions from archival research, it can
be concluded that the frequency of the discussed
features was likely much higher; however, they
have been partially destroyed or inappropriately
explored.
Bukivna cemetery. The necropolis in Bukiv-
na is spatially the largest cemetery of the KC
and covers an area of several square kilometres.
Together with the neighbouring cemetery in Mi-
lovanye, this necropolis consists of a dozen barrow
concentrations with a total of over 150 mounds
located on exposed landforms and creating both
linear and group alignments (Makarowicz et al.
2016a; 2016b; 2016c; 2018; 2019; (eds.) 2021). The
cemetery was explored pre-World War II, in 1931
and 1938 (Bryk 1932; Śmiszko 1937; Siwkówna
1938; Rogozińska 1959), and also during the re-
cent Polish-Ukrainian research project from 2010
to 2014 (Makarowicz, Lysenko, Kočkin 2013a;
2013b; 2020; Lysenko et al. 2015) 1. During the
latter, six barrows were excavated, three of which
revealed four features that are preliminary inter-
preted as «cenotaphs».
1. The project was funded by the National Science
Centre of Poland, grant no. 2011/03/B/HS3/00839
«Bukivna. An elite Komarów culture cemetery by
the Dnister River», which was undertaken from
2011 to 2015 by scholars from Adam Mickiewicz
University in Poznań, the National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine in Kiev, and Vasyl Stephanyk
Precarpathian University in Ivano-Frankivsk.
Barrow 1/I/2010 — Feature 3. This feature
was located in the central-west sector of Bar-
row 1/I/2010. It was rectangular in shape with
dimensions of 1.7 × 0.9 m, the contours of which
were marked by ten stones arranged in two paral-
lel rows oriented NNW—SSE (fig. 1). Moreover,
one stone was situated to the northeast, which
lengthens the potential wall of this feature. In
turn, the southwestern corner of this construction
was strengthened by two additional stones, which
created a kind of «vestibule». The whole construc-
tion was situated between 1.43 and 1.61 m be-
neath the top of the barrow. Stones used to build
this construction were erratic with dimensions of
18—25 × 15—23 × 5—10 cm. They were placed di-
rectly within a clay layer. Some burnt oak wooden
piles were documented to the east and west of the
northern part of this construction. Their dimen-
sions were between 0.9 and 0.5 m in length, 10.0
to 12.0 cm in width, and 1.5 to 3.0 cm in thick-
ness. No human bones were found inside the de-
scribed feature; only archaeological material was
present. Three vessels (a completely preserved
pot, a vase, and fragments of another pot) were
discovered in the northern part of the construc-
tion. Another two containers (a bowl and cup)
were excavated from the vicinity of the southeast
corner. What is more the deposit also included a
rhomboidal-head pin, the remains of a bronze pen-
dant, a flint arrowhead, and a sickle, and another
three vessels (a vase, bowl and cup) were found
1.5 m northeast of the described feature (Makaro-
wicz, Lysenko, Kočkin 2013a, p. 160—162;
2013b, p. 104—107; (eds.) 2021; Lysenko 2015,
p. 59—63). Geochemical analysis also revealed
increased proportions of phosphorus in this area
of the feature (Hildebrandt-Radke, Spychalski
2021).
Barrow 7/I/2014 — Feature 6. The feature
was located in the southeast sector of Barrow 7/
I/2014, at a depth of between 1.81 and 1.90 m from
the top of the mound. It was built from six stones
arrange in a rectangular plan oriented NE—SW
(fig. 2). The size of the stones ranged from 16 × 10
to 23 × 17 cm. The construction dimensions were
1.7 × 0.7 — 0.97 m. The fill of the feature did not
differ from the surrounding vicinity and no os-
teological material was documented inside. One
vessel (a vase) was found in the northwest part
of this construction. In turn, one mug which lay
upside down was excavated from the northwest
corner. It appears that this vessel «marked» the
corner of this structure, and perhaps was used
instead of a stone. An additional two vessels (a
pot and amphorae, originally one placed within
the other) were excavated in the vicinity of the
southwest corner stone.
Barrow 7/I/2014 — Feature 7. The discussed
structure was documented in the northwest
sector of Barrow 7/I/2014, at a depth of 1.75 to
1.81 m from the top of the mound. This feature,
nearly oval in shape, was oriented NW—SE with
362 ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2021, вип. 2 (39)
Дискусії
dimensions of 3 × 1.92 m, and eight stones were
situated in a rectangular plan in its interior
(fig. 2). The feature fill was «pan-shape» in profile
and consist of two layers. The external one con-
sisted of brown soil with admixture of clay and
fragmented charcoal in some places. The internal
layer (with dimensions of 2.43 × 1.18 × 0.25 m)
consisted of black-brown and dark-grey soil with
some tiny pieces of charcoal and a small fraction
of clay. The stone construction inside with dimen-
sions of 1.38 × 0.96 m was situated parallel to the
described layers. Additionally, a small stone was
found that extended the northern wall. Another
stone was excavated around 0.20 m to the south-
west of the southwestern wall. Four vessels were
documented in the Feature 7 context. Three (a
vase, cup, and pot) were excavated from the south-
east part of the construction. The first was on its
side at a distance of 0.5 m to the southeast of the
southeastern cornerstone. Slightly closer (around
0.15 m) to the same cornerstone, a cup was found,
inside of which was a small pot. Moreover, a bowl
lying on its side was deposited in the northwest
sector of the described construction. Many char-
coal concentrations were observed in the north
and northwest parts of this feature. Additionally,
several flint tools and small pieces of pottery were
documented within the Feature 7 outline, but
again no human remains were found.
Barrow 2/I/2010/2012 — Feature 1. Feature 1
from Barrow 2/I/2010/2012 may be another exam-
ple of the discussed type of funeral structure. This
construction was discovered in the central part of
the barrow. However, it must be emphasized that
the structure was almost completely destroyed by
a modern looter’s trench, which damaged a sub-
stantial part of this mound, especially the central
sectors. Due to this, only the eastern section of
this construction was preserved (fig. 3). Perhaps
two stones with dimensions of 23 × 20 × 12 and
24 × 15 × 8 cm marked the eastern brink of the
structure. The distances between the stones that
comprise this construction oscillate around 0.7 m,
and a fragment of burnt wood with dimensions
of 7 × 5 × 1 cm, probably the remains of a pile,
was observed 0.3 m to southeast. No osteological
material was found in the context of this feature.
The equipment of this structure included three
vessels. The first (a vase) stood on the southern-
most stone. Less than a metre from the vase, the
lower part of a S-shaped pot was found. Finally,
Fig. 1. Feature 3 from Barrow 1/I/2010 in Bukivna
363ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2021, вип. 2 (39)
Romaniszyn, Ya., Makarowicz, P. Real burials or cenotaphs? A study of the mysterious under-mound funerary...
a highly fragmented vessel was noticed around
1 m from the southern edge of the feature. Addi-
tionally, the upper part of a nail-headed pin was
documented between the mentioned vase and pot.
However, it seems like a large part of the feature
inventory was stolen by looters.
Komariv cemetery. The cemetery in Komar-
iv (former Komarów) is a part of a larger barrow
complex that also includes necropolises in Krylos,
Viktoriv, and Medynya. This necropolis is located
on the watershed between the Lukva and Lim-
nitsa rivers. As at Bukivna, barrows here create a
series of linear and group-linear concentrations,
stretching along the highest parts of the ter-
rain (see Makarowicz et al. 2016a; 2016b; 2016c;
2019). The cemetery was explored at the end of
19th century (Ziemięcki 1887); however, the great-
est intensification of fieldwork took place from
1934 to 1936 during the wide ranging excava-
tions conducted by Tadeusz Sulimirski and Józef
Fig. 2. Features 6 and 7 from double Barrow 6 and 7/I/2010 in Bukivna
36� ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2021, вип. 2 (39)
Дискусії
Grabowski (Sulimirski 1936; 1939; 1964; 1968,
p. 105—119). In total, over 60 barrows were exca-
vated and assigned to the Corded Ware Culture
(CWC) and also to the KC.
It appears that three features (two from Bar-
row 34 and one from Barrow 45) can be consid-
ered as the type of under-barrow mortuary archi-
tecture discussed in this article. It should also be
assumed that pre-war excavation methodologies
did not always permit the observation of rectan-
gular features and probably their frequency was
higher at this site. Relics of the excavated bar-
rows in the form of «cutting cones» observed dur-
ing a recent field-walking surveys (Makarowicz
2016a) also suggest that some of the under-bar-
row architecture located in side sectors of these
barrows may have gone undocumented.
Barrow 34 — Feature A. The central part of
the described barrow was destroyed by a second
(chronologically subsequent) cremated burial.
Around 0.70 m beneath this structure, the orig-
inal grave feature was found. It was built from
six stones (in the excavators’ opinions, they were
«halved») with dimensions from 20 to 60 cm and
they marked a rectangular area of 1.5 m2 (fig. 4:
A). This structure was oriented NW—SE and no
skeletal material was observed in this context.
Three crushed vessels (a bowl, cup, and mug)
were deposited in a row along the eastern wall.
Another container (possibly a pot with a folded
edge) lay around 1 m to the east of the other ves-
sels. Additionally, a flint arrowhead was found in
the northeast corner of the construction. Three
pits filled with charcoal were also observed within
the feature outline (Sulimirski
1968, p. 111f, plan 19: 2).
Barrow 34 — Feature B. In
the northeast sector of the
same barrow, another feature
of the type we are interested
in was found around 2 m to the
northwest of Feature A (fig. 4:
A). This construction was built
from stones arranged in three
rows which formed a rectangu-
lar shape of 2 m2. The feature
recalls examples from barrows
at Bukivna; however, after
analysing the documentation,
it can be concluded that two
such structures were built next
to each other. A shallow hole
with containing three vessels
(a cup, mug, and bowl) was ob-
served by the western wall of
this feature. As in Feature A,
no skeleton traces were found
inside Feature B (Sulimirski
1968, p. 111—112; plan 19: 2).
It should be mention that ana-
logically to Barrow 7/I/2014 in
Bukivna, two features of the
discussed type of funeral archi-
tecture were documented under
the mound of one barrow.
Barrow 45 — Feature 1. This
feature was located 1.5 m to
northwest of the central point
of Barrow 45. It was built from
11 stones arranged in three rows
(fig. 4: B). The structure had di-
mensions of 5.5 × 3 m and was
oriented SW—NE. In the opinion
of the excavators, the described
construction likely included more
stones that were removed as a
result of agricultural activity.
When analysing the preserved
arrangement of stones, it can be Fig. 3. Feature 1 from Barrow 2/I/2010/2012 in Bukivna
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Romaniszyn, Ya., Makarowicz, P. Real burials or cenotaphs? A study of the mysterious under-mound funerary...
assumed that they originally formed two, adjacent,
rectangular structures. Importantly, calcined hu-
man bones and charcoal fragments were identified
inside the southwest sector of the construction, al-
though osteological material was not observed in
the northeast part of this feature. Ten vessels were
Fig. 4. Komariv: A — Features A and B from
Barrow 34; B — Feature 1 from the Barrow 45
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Дискусії
documented within the context of the construction.
Similar to the latter examples, all were placed along
the walls of the structure. Specifically, four vessels
(two pots and two bowls) were deposited next to the
northwest wall, one (a bowl) by the north wall, and
four (three bowls and a handled mug) by the south-
east wall (Sulimirski 1968, p. 114; plan 24: 2).
Nieciecz Włościańska Barrow — Grave 2.
The last example of a funerary construction of the
type discussed here, is a structure from the bar-
row in Nieciecz Włościańska (fig. 5). In contrast
to the examples presented above, which are lo-
cated on the belt of the southern highlands, this
barrow is located in the northeast area of the
TCC, in South Podlasie. One barrow located on
a sandy hill above the Cetynia River Valley was
excavated during investment research conducted
in 2012 (Kiełbasińska et al. 2012).
In the northeast sector of this barrow a rectan-
gular feature designated «Grave 2» was found. Its
contours were formed by six stones arranged in
the corners and in the middle of the longer sides
of the feature. This structure was oriented NE—
SW. No osteological material was found inside the
feature; however, the excavators observed traces
of discoloration or «washed hummus», which in
their opinion indicated the presence of a deceased
whose remains did not preserved due to unfa-
Fig. 5. Grave 2 from the barrow in Nieciecz
Włościańska
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Romaniszyn, Ya., Makarowicz, P. Real burials or cenotaphs? A study of the mysterious under-mound funerary...
vourable soil conditions. Basing on field observa-
tions, they stated that the individual in Grave 2
was buried in a crouched position on his left side
with hands folded near his face and the head to
the NE. Also, within the context of this feature, a
bronze spearhead, nail-head pin, and two spiral
bracelets were excavated. Additionally, numer-
ous fragments of a vessel (pot) were documented
in the vicinity of the potential deceased’s head
(Kiełbasińska et al. 2012, p. 5—7).
Chronology. The pottery from the described
features generally represents the classic stage of
the TCC development, both in the western area
(Nieciecz Włościańska), as well as the southeast
part occupied by the KC societies (Bukivna). To
increase the precision of the absolute chronology
of the analysed constructions, five 14C dates from
features at both sites were calibrated (table).
After calibration, the chronological ranges sug-
gest that the discussed feature are associated
with the earliest, or classic horizon of TCC devel-
opment in the highland area of its range. The ab-
solute dates point to the 18th to 16th centuries BC
as the most probable periods during which this
type of under-mound construction was in use (ta-
ble; fig. 6). Generally, this is also confirmed by
the sum of the probability distributions of the ob-
tained 14C values (fig. 7).
Calibrated radiocarbon dates from the discussed mortuary features
from Nieciecz Włościańska and Bukivna (Oxcal v. 4.4; Bronk Ramsey 2009)
No. Barrow Feature Conv BP Cal BC (68,3 %) Cal BC (95.4 %) Lab no. Material
1 Nieciecz Włościańska
30 2 3430 ± 40 1869—1849 (9.2)
1772—1676 (53.6)
1654—1641 (5.4)
1879—1839 (13.7)
1826—1622 (81.8)
Poz-57704 Wood
Bukivna
2 7/I/2014 7 3425 ± 30 1863—1855 (4.0)
1767—1683 (59.3)
1653—1643 (5.0)
1873—1845 (9.9)
1818—1801 (2.9)
1776—1625 (82.7) Poz-69118 Charcoal
3 7/I/2014 6 3390 ± 35 1736—1716 (14.9)
1693—1626 (53.4)
1867—1851 (1.8)
1770—1607 (89.4)
1581—1544 (4.3 Poz-69117 Charcoal
4 Nieciecz Włościańska
30 2 3340 ± 35 1669—1656 (6.7)
1635—1540 (61.5)
1736—1716 (4.9)
1692—1518 (90.5) Poz-57705 Wood
5 Bukivna
5 1/I/2010 3 3305 ± 30 1612—1534 (68.3) 1665—1659 (0.6)
1631—1502 (94.9) Poz-88820 Charcoal
Fig. 6. Radiocarbon dates from Feature 3 — Barrow 1/I/2010, Features 6 and 7 — Barrow 7/I/2014 — Bukivna,
Grave 2 — Nieciecz Włościańska
Fig. 7. Sum of probability distribution of radiocarbon
dates discussed in the paper
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Дискусії
The role of rectangular structures in the
funeral practices of TCC societies. Discus-
sion and interpretation. «Trzciniec» funeral
rites are characterized by their great variety,
complexity, and dynamics of change. Interregion-
al similarities and differences in ritual behav-
iours are registered in TCC necropolises. Not only
burials, but other features with different roles,
probably symbolic or ritual, are documented un-
der the mounds of this cultural formation (Górski
2010; Makarowicz 2010, p. 201; Piotrowska 2012,
p. 86). These types of funeral structures also in-
clude a broad spectrum of constructions that
have been registered inside barrows (Makarow-
icz 2010a, p. 228—242; Górski 2010). Described
symbolic structures have various architectoni-
cal forms (Florek, Taras 2003, p. 63—69; Gór-
ski 2010; 2017; Makarowicz 2010a, p. 228—242;
Niculică, Boghian 2015). Specifically, within this
wide range of stone and wooden-stone construc-
tions, the following forms can be distinguished:
stone boxes (cists), pseudo-cists (stone construc-
tions similar to cists), stone rings, pavements,
as well as wooden platforms, coffins, and mortu-
ary houses based on differential architectonical
plans (Florek, Taras 2003, p. 63—69; Makarow-
icz 2010a, p. 231—242; 2019; Niculică, Boghian
2015, p. 82). It should be mentioned here that
parts of the TCC are distinguished by specific fu-
neral architecture. For example, the Biały Potok
group (BPG) of the Western Podolia area is char-
acterised by flat inhumated graves tightly cased
within stone constructions (Kostrzewski 1928;
Romaniszyn, Makarowicz 2018). Also, the area
between the Prut and Dnister rivers, covering
the current area of Romania and the Republic of
Moldova, is rich in stone construction (Shovkopl-
yas 1952; Dergačev 1986; Boghian, Niculică, Bu-
dui 2012; Niculică, Boghian 2015). Nevertheless,
the rectangular structures delineated by stones
discussed in this article have not received much
attention to date in the literature.
The features of interest to us were discovered
mostly in the Komarów version of the TCC, in
the upper Dniester area. Only one construction
was explored in the northern (lowland) extent of
the TCC. However, it should be emphasized once
again that the features described in this article
have architectural layouts that are subtle and
difficult to register during excavation. This is
confirmed by the documentation record. Among
the eight structures known to date, six were ex-
plored in the last decade, that is during the period
when archaeological technique and tools to record
documentation have improved significantly. For
example, of the five KC barrows in Bukivna, the
described features were observed under as many
as three mounds (Makarowicz et al. (eds.) 2021).
Hitherto, all known rectangular features delin-
eated by stones were discovered beneath mounds,
and most were located on the ancient soil level.
In addition to these features, structures of dif-
fering types were also registered in the same
barrows. For example, in Bukivna two separate
barrows — Barrow 6/I/2014 measuring 11.5 ×
10 × 1.45 m (length × width × height) and Bar-
row 7/I/2014 measuring 11.5 × 10 × 1.6 m — were
in such close proximity that they created the im-
pression of one longitudinal barrow. Ten features
were distinguished during the excavation of these
barrows (Makarowicz et al. 2020). In addition to
the rectangular constructions described above,
clay-wooden mortuary houses (more Makarowicz
2019), ritual deposits of vessels, and fragments
of smaller wooden constructions were also record-
ed. In Barrow 1/I/2010 from this site, five other
features were found in addition to a potential
cenotaph. There were the remains of two burnt
wooden platforms, a stone pavement, and relics of
another clay construction (Makarowicz, Lysenko,
Kočkin 2013a, p. 160—162; 2013b, p. 104—107;
2020; Lysenko et al. 2015, p. 59—63). In the Nie-
ciecz Włościańska barrow, in addition to Grave 2
discussed above, Grave 1 was also documented.
It was a construction built of around 100 irreg-
ularly shaped stones located in the central part
of the barrow. The diameter of this construction
was nearly 5 m and contained a clearly separat-
ed space in which the deceased had been buried
(Kiełbasińska et al. 2012, p. 5—7). Undoubtedly,
constructions accompanying the discussed fea-
tures were also registered in Barrows 34 and 45
from Komariv. However, brief reports from this
excavation, which for example describe some
ritual features as an «area with scattered lumps
of charcoal», prevent the exact recognition of
these construction types (Sulimirski 1968, p. 114,
plan 23).
Another common trait of the discussed features
was traces of fire activity in the barrow where
they were located. One of the TCC under-mound
funeral rites was in situ cremation or burning
the grave construction with the deceased inside
(Makarowicz 2008; 2010a, p. 243; 2019; Roman-
iszyn 2015, p. 39; 2018; Górski 2017; see Górski
et al. 2017). Following the latest interpretations,
cremation within the borders of TCC barrows de-
rived from the post-Globular Amphorae culture
tradition or from the Carpathian Basin cultures.
It cannot be ruled out that this pattern could also
have been connected to the middle Dnieper area,
where numerous cases of this type were confirmed.
Therefore, it is assumed that the tradition of cre-
mating the deceased inside the under-mound
constructions has various and omni-directional
origins (more Makarowicz 2010a, p. 384—385). In
the context of the features of interest in this pa-
per, the practice of burning has a direct impact on
the ability to recognize their function. The activ-
ity of ritual fire was one of the reasons that some
of the construction elements were completely
destroyed. Therefore, it cannot be clearly stated
that the stones dug into the ancient surface of the
rectangular features discussed here were the only
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Romaniszyn, Ya., Makarowicz, P. Real burials or cenotaphs? A study of the mysterious under-mound funerary...
components of the funeral construction or wheth-
er they served as a base for a larger over-ground
structure. At this point it is necessary to men-
tion Feature 3 from Barrow 1/I/2010 in Bukivna
where the remains of burnt oak piles were found
to the east and west of the extreme vertices of the
described feature (Makarowicz, Lysenko, Kočkin
2013b, p. 104—105). Thus, a scenario assum-
ing preserved stones on a rectangular plan were
a relic (a foundation?) of a larger construction
cannot be ruled out. There are examples of this
type of TCC monumental funeral structure from
Dwikozy and Dacharzów (Ścibior, Ścibior 1990;
Florek, Taras 2003), although in both cases they
were significantly larger structures — mortuary
houses.
It is also difficult to clearly define the role that
these stone-lined rectangular features played in
the religious life of the builders. Analogically to
other under-mound structures, it can be assumed
they perform a ritual and symbolic function.
Their morphologic specifications, such as their
rectangular form, dimensions, borders outlined
by stones, and the accompanying inventory sug-
gests that they were a place where a deceased was
buried. However, among the eight such construc-
tions discovered to date, only one contained hu-
man remains (Komariv, Barrow 45), while traces
of a skeleton on the ancient soil was observed in
Nieciecz Włościańska. At this point, we pose the
question: are the discussed features real burials
or do they represent the practice of erecting sym-
bolic graves, or so-called cenotaphs, by TCC com-
munities? The lack of human remains inside the
construction forces us to reflect on whether they
were intentionally uninterred by the TCC socie-
ties or if this is a result of geochemical processes
that took place inside the barrow.
These questions may be answered by the re-
sults of geochemical analysis of soil samples from
the layers where grave constructions were discov-
ered (Hildebrandt-Radke, Spychalski 2021). They
indicate different contents of micro- and macro-
components in the different layers of the mounds,
especially in the funeral features and soil filling
the vessels. Lack of preserved bones and wood
in the contexts of the features discussed here
suggests mineralization of the organic material
(Hildebrandt-Radke, Spychalski 2021). Conduct-
ed analysis have confirmed that bones are signifi-
cantly more poorly preserved in acidic soil envi-
ronments (Karlsberg, Richter 2006, p. 130—131).
Indeed, preliminary results 1 indicate the soil pH
from Bukivna samples are acidic, ranging from
3.18 to 5.11, which would have negatively impact-
ed the preservation of bone in these contexts. Ex-
perimental research carried out on the remains of
animals in various soil environments (Nicholson
1. Authors would like to thank Prof. Iwona Hildebrandt-
Radke (Adam Mickiewicz University) who conducted
analysis.
1993; 1996) also indicate that a number of other
factors, such as the depth of deposited feature,
the internal structure of the bone, aeration proc-
esses, weathering, and micro-organisms activity
are crucial in the preservation of bone. These
processes are extremely various and require fur-
ther studies (more Stiner et al. 1995; Nicholson
1996, p. 523—525, 528).
Fire activity also affects the preservation of
human bones inside the barrow constructions.
Bones subjected to continuous heating lose their
properties and bulk, which is caused by loss of
water and organic matter including their main
component — collagen (Kalsbeek, Richter 2006,
p. 125). Observation of bone cremation indicates
that the highest loss of bone weight and organic
material occurs in the beginning phase of burn-
ing at temperatures of between 200 and 500 ˚C
(Grupe, Hummel 1991, p. 180; Karlsbeek, Rich-
ter 2006, p. 127). The analyse of burnt osteologi-
cal material from Bukivna revealed that when
features containing individuals were burned, the
temperature oscillated between 600 and 900 ˚C,
sometimes reaching between 1000 and 1200 ˚C
(Slobodian, Szczepanek 2021). Moreover, research
suggests that burnt bones are more susceptible to
decomposition in unfavourable soil environments
than non-cremated remains. Based on this infor-
mation, it cannot be excluded that osteological
material was either mineralized or completely
destroyed in the discussed features. This is sup-
ported by the presence of trace amounts of bone
observed in two of the discussed features (Sulim-
irski 1968, p. 114; Kiełbasińska et al. 2012, p. 5—
6). Nevertheless, the current database does not
give unequivocal credibility to this hypothesis,
and it is not yet possible to state whether the lack
of osteological material within most of the fea-
tures identified here is due to poor bone preserva-
tion or because they were real symbolic burials.
The erection of funeral architecture which se-
cure grave pits or general burial areas are known
from the Neolithic period (Krzak 1994). On the
basis of TCC customs, this issue has been widely
described in literature (Taras 2003; Makarowicz
2010a, p. 228—242, 382—383). The establish-
ment of such constructions was likely connected
to funeral behaviours that constituted defence
systems, as well as preventive and soothing
measures for a community suffering after the
death of a member (more Durkheim 1903; Brencz
1987). Such rituals had group-forming, educating,
and strengthening functions that maintained a
group’s cohesion and cultivated mutual ties (Gór-
ski 1997; Minta-Tworzowska 2000, p. 48; Kadrow
2006, p. 135). In the TCC case, this is reflected
in very complex funerary practises. Based on the
rites de passage (rites of passage) model of A. van
Gennep (1909), it can be established that funeral
constructions were a component of various ritual
processes. In the literature it is assumed that
one of the stages of funeral rites was to appoint a
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Дискусії
closed sacral area where the deceased was to be
buried (Kośko 1991, p. 8). In our opinion, the type
of construction discussed here could have played
this role due to its architectural form as struc-
tures that marked sacral space. Additionally, the
registered traces of cremation confirm the sym-
bolic act of «securing» the deceased (Kośko 1991,
p. 20—21). This hypothesis is also supported by
the presence of funeral goods in potential ceno-
taphs, which are also commonly deposited in ac-
tual graves.
To date, considerations of the occurrence of
grave architecture in TCC barrows mostly indi-
cate their genesis during the Neolithic and post-
Neolithic traditions (Florek, Taras 2003, p. 65;
Makarowicz 2010a, p. 383; Niculică, Boghian
2015, p. 86). The presence of grave construc-
tions is common for Neolithic, Bronze Age, and
Halstatt period cultures in Europe in both flat as
well as barrow cemeteries (Florek, Taras 2003,
p. 65). In the context of the described phenom-
enon, special attention is paid to the continuity of
Final Neolithic (in the form of the Globular Am-
phorae culture — GAC) and early Bronze Age (in
the form of CWC) traditions (Makarowicz 2010a,
p. 387). In the first case, similarities in grave con-
struction, mass graves, and the manner of body
decomposition reflect potential genetic relation-
ships (Makarowicz 2010b, p. 393). The adapta-
tion of some CWC features can be confirmed by
the presence of similar forms of funeral architec-
ture, the erection of barrows, and the remains of
sepulchral feasts (Makarowicz 2010b, p. 393).
Finally, it must be emphasized that grave goods
always occur in the context of the discussed funeral
structures. These include vessels, as well as bronze
jewellery and weaponry. Their frequency (from one
to 10 vessels, as well as accompanying metal arte-
facts) suggests that the described features played a
significant role in the funeral rites of TCC societies
and may indicate a burial. The study of the symbol-
ism of grave goods indicate their importance as a
«bridge between the living and dead worlds» (Woźny
2005). Special analysis of vessels from Bukivna bar-
rows has confirmed they contained both food and
drink (Czaplińska-Kałużna et al. 2017; Czaplińska-
Kałużna, Rosiak 2021). This supports the fact that
the discussed constructions contained funerary
inventories typically included with deceased were
part of various TCC culture funeral rites by the
classic period of this culture group.
Conclusions. The presented type of under-
barrow architecture comprising rectangular con-
structions outlined with stones and containing
burial goods, has only recently been recognized
during excavation and archival research. The
discovery of these features in different parts of
the range of TCC societies suggests that these
structures were symbolic and universal for this
community. These constructions were erected be-
neath the mounds and the remains of fire activity
in these contexts suggest the practice of in situ
cremation. The chronology of these features con-
firms that they were erected in the classic stage
of the TCC development, when restructuring of
earlier the CWC cemeteries primarily occurred in
the upper Dniester area. Probably this was ac-
companied by the introduction of a number of new
ritual behaviours. These aspects distinguished,
in various areas, the activity of the TCC societies
from earlier sepulchral habits known from the
Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age, as well
as from those of contemporaneous neighbouring
cultures. It can therefore be concluded that the
discussed features are symbol of new funeral rite
quality and development which brought the TCC
community.
The closed, rectangular form of the described
features, using clay-stone material (probably also
wood) to delineate the sacred area suggests that
these structures played the role of burials. At this
geochemical and anthropological research stage,
it is hard to clearly state whether they are real
burials. For example, the lack of human remains
in the majority of examples of these features may
be intentional if they were meant to be symbolic
burials. Nevertheless, chemical analyses may
indicate the former presence of human bones or
organic material that has not preserved in the
archaeological record. Undoubtedly, this aspect
must be examined in subsequent, more detailed
studies. At the current stage of research, it can be
concluded that the structure of these features, as
well as their location and rich burial equipment
suggests their importance, and perhaps crucial
rank in TCC funeral activities. The occurrence
of these architectural structures beneath TCC
mounds also confirms the complexity and multi-
dimensionality of this community’s funeral rites,
which is often emphasized in the literature.
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37� ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2021, вип. 2 (39)
Дискусії
J. Romaniszyn, P. Makarowicz
REAL BURIALS OR CENOTAPHS?
A STUDY OF THE MYSTERIOUS
UNDER-MOUND FUNERARY
CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE
TRZCINIEC CULTURAL CIRCLE
The purpose of this article is to present a complex
analysis of recently recognised funeral structures dis-
covered in Trzciniec Cultural Circle barrows. These
features are rectangular and stones are typically situ-
ated in the corners, in the middle of the sides, or along
the walls, creating unique structures with clearly de-
lineated interior spaces. However, the function of these
features is not well understood. This feature form is
fragile and slight, which makes them difficult to record
using traditional excavation methods. The majority of
these features have been discovered over the last dec-
ade now that new documentation and exploration tools
are available to archaeologists. These constructions are
only known from barrow cemeteries and the remains of
in situ cremation were also documented in their con-
text. Their occurrence confirms the variety and com-
plexity of funeral rites of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle
community. To date, eight structures of this type are
known. Four (Barrow 1/I/2010 — Feature 3; Barrow 7/
I/2014 — Features 6 and 7; Barrow 2/I/2010/2012 —
Feature 1) were registered in the Bukivna cemetery
during the Polish-Ukrainian expedition realized by
scholars from Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań,
the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kiev,
and Vasyl Stephanyk Precarpathian University in
Ivano-Frankivsk. The study of archival materials
from pre-war excavations conducted by T. Sulimirski
and J. Grabowski in Komariv revealed another three
features of this type (Barrow 34 — Features A and B;
Barrow 45 — Feature 1). One structure of this type
(Grave 2) was also excavated in Nieciecz Włościańska
in the northeast enclave of the Trzciniec Cultural Cir-
cle during recent investment research.
Due to radiocarbon analysis, the authors have se-
curely established the chronology of these features.
The obtained radiocarbon values indicate that these
constructions were erected during the classic stage of
the Trzciniec Cultural Circle, attributable to the 18 to
16th centuries BC, which was confirmed by archaeologi-
cal material found within these features.
The discussion of the function and symbolism of
these constructions suggest that they could play the
role of burials. This is also suggested by geochemical
analysis of soil samples from the Bukivna cemetery.
However, due to the lack of osteological material in
most of these features, this aspect remains shrouded in
mystery and requires additional studies. Regardless,
the form, location in barrows, and funerary inventory
of these features suggest that they played important
role in funeral rites of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle so-
ciety.
Keywords: funeral rite, under-barrow architecture,
funeral construction, the Trzciniec Cultural Circle,
barrows.
Я. Романішин, П. Макаровіч
спрАВЖні похоВАннЯ Чи ке-
нотАФи? дослідЖеннЯ тАЄМ-
ниЧих похоВАлЬних підкУр-
гАнних спорУд тШинеЦЬкого
кУлЬтУрного колА
Стаття має на меті представити комплексний аналіз похо-
вальних споруд, виявлених нещодавно у курганах тшинець-
кого культурного кола. Ці об’єкти мають прямокутну форму,
а камені розташовані зазвичай в кутах, посередині боків
або вздовж стін, створюючи унікальні конструкції з чітко
окресленими внутрішніми просторами. Однак функція цих
об’єктів не зрозуміла до кінця. Малі розміри об’єктів усклад-
нюють їхню фіксацію із використанням традиційних методів
розкопок. Більшість із цих об’єктів було виявлено протягом
останнього десятиліття, коли для археологів стали доступні
нові методи документації та інструменти для досліджень. Ці
споруди відомі лише з курганних могильників, також у їхньо-
му контексті були задокументовані залишки кремації in situ.
Їхня поява підтверджує різноманітність та складність похо-
вальних обрядів жителів тшинецького культурного кола. На
сьогодні відомо вісім конструкцій цього типу. чотири із них
(курган 1/I/2010 — об’єкт 3; курган 7/I/2014 — об’єкти 6 і 7;
курган 2/I/2010/2012 — об’єкт 1) були зафіксовані на могиль-
нику у Буківні під час польсько-української експедиції, у якій
брали участь науковці з Університету ім. А. Міцкевича у Поз-
нані, Національної академії наук України в Києві та При-
карпатського університету ім. в. Стефаника в Івано-Фран-
ківську. вивчення архівних матеріалів розкопок довоєнного
часу, проведених Т. Сулімирським та й. Грабовським у Ко-
марові, дало змогу виявити ще три потенційні кенотафи (кур-
ган 34 — об’єкти A та B; курган 45 — об’єкт 1). Одну споруду
цього типу (поховання 2) також було розкопано у Nieciecz
Włościańska у північно-східному анклаві тшинецького куль-
турного кола під час нещодавніх рятівних досліджень.
завдяки радіовуглецевому аналізу авторами встановлено
хронологію цих об’єктів. Отримані радіовуглецеві дати свід-
чать про те, що досліджувані об’єкти були споруджені під час
класичного етапу розвитку тшинецького культурного кола,
що відноситься до 18—16 ст. до н. е. Це також підтверджено
археологічним матеріалом, знайденим в межах цих об’єктів.
Аналіз функції та символіки цих об’єктів свідчить про те, що
вони могли виконувати роль поховань. Про це також свідчить
геохімічний аналіз зразків ґрунту з могильника у Буківні. Од-
нак через брак остеологічного матеріалу для більшості із цих
об’єктів, цей аспект залишається овіяним таємницею і вимагає
додаткових досліджень. Незважаючи на це, форма, розташу-
вання в курганах та поховальний інвентар цих об’єктів свід-
чать про те, що вони відігравали важливу роль у поховальних
обрядах населення тшинецького культурного кола.
ключові слова: похоронна обрядовість, підкурганна
архітектура, тшинецьке культурне коло, кургани.
Отримано 28.09.2020
МАкАроВіЧ пшемислав, професор, Університет
імені Адама Міцкевича у м. Познань, Польща.
MAKAROWICZ Przemysław, Professor, Adam
Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poland.
ORCID: 0000-0003-4452-7704, e-mail: przemom@amu.edu.pl.
роМАніШин Ян, PhD, Університет імені Адама
Міцкевича у м. Познань, Польща.
ROMANISZYN Jan, PhD, Adam Mickiewicz Univer-
sity in Poznań, Poland.
ORCID: 0000-0002-0562-7414, e-mail: janrom89@wp.pl.
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