Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection
The design of the modular plasma guns of an erosion type that operate in the pulse-periodic mode has been described. The injection of the electrode and dielectric materials occurs due to the combination of many processes initiated by the high-voltage surface discharge. The guns with the dielectrics...
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irk-123456789-1958872023-12-08T12:31:47Z Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection Vinnikov, D.V. Katrechko, V.V. Yuferov, V.B. Tkachev, V.I. Plasma dynamics and plasma-wall interaction The design of the modular plasma guns of an erosion type that operate in the pulse-periodic mode has been described. The injection of the electrode and dielectric materials occurs due to the combination of many processes initiated by the high-voltage surface discharge. The guns with the dielectrics of (C₂H₄)n and (C₂F₄)n types have been compared. Optical spectrograms of discharges for a (C₂F₄)n dielectric have been obtained. The radial and axial spread of sprayed components that are the part of plasma guns has been specified and the composition of the sediments deposited on the targets has been defined. Описано влаштування плазмових гармат ерозійного типу модульної конструкції, що працюють у імпульсно-періодичному режимі. Інжекція матеріалу електродів та діелектрика відбуваються за рахунок комплексу процесів при високовольтному поверхневому розряді. Проведено порівняння гармат з діелектриками (C₂H₄)n- та (C₂F₄)n-типу. Отримано оптичні спектрограми розрядів для (C₂F₄)n-діелектрика. Визначено радіальний та осьовий розліт розпилених компонентів, що входять до складу плазмових гармат. Визначено склад осаду на мішені. 2022 Article Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection / D.V. Vinnikov, V.V. Katrechko, V.B. Yuferov, V.I. Tkachev // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2022. — № 6. — С. 60-65. — Бібліогр.: 12 назв. — англ. 1562-6016 PACS: 52.50Dg, 52.80 Vp, 52.70Kz, 29.30Ep DOI: https://doi.org/10.46813/2022-142-060 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/195887 en Problems of Atomic Science and Technology Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України |
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Plasma dynamics and plasma-wall interaction Plasma dynamics and plasma-wall interaction Vinnikov, D.V. Katrechko, V.V. Yuferov, V.B. Tkachev, V.I. Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |
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The design of the modular plasma guns of an erosion type that operate in the pulse-periodic mode has been described. The injection of the electrode and dielectric materials occurs due to the combination of many processes initiated by the high-voltage surface discharge. The guns with the dielectrics of (C₂H₄)n and (C₂F₄)n types have been compared. Optical spectrograms of discharges for a (C₂F₄)n dielectric have been obtained. The radial and axial spread of sprayed components that are the part of plasma guns has been specified and the composition of the sediments deposited on the targets has been defined. |
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Article |
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Vinnikov, D.V. Katrechko, V.V. Yuferov, V.B. Tkachev, V.I. |
| author_facet |
Vinnikov, D.V. Katrechko, V.V. Yuferov, V.B. Tkachev, V.I. |
| author_sort |
Vinnikov, D.V. |
| title |
Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection |
| title_short |
Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection |
| title_full |
Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection |
| title_fullStr |
Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection |
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Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection |
| title_sort |
plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection |
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Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України |
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2022 |
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Plasma dynamics and plasma-wall interaction |
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http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/195887 |
| citation_txt |
Plasma guns of an erosion type with the pulse-periodic gas-metal injection / D.V. Vinnikov, V.V. Katrechko, V.B. Yuferov, V.I. Tkachev // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2022. — № 6. — С. 60-65. — Бібліогр.: 12 назв. — англ. |
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Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |
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ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2022. №6(142).
60 Series: Plasma Physics (28), p. 60-65.
https://doi.org/10.46813/2022-142-060
PLASMA GUNS OF AN EROSION TYPE WITH THE PULSE-PERIODIC
GAS-METAL INJECTION
D.V. Vinnikov, V.V. Katrechko, V.B. Yuferov, V.I. Tkachev
National Science Center “Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology”, Kharkiv, Ukraine
E-mail: vinniden@gmail.com
The design of the modular plasma guns of an erosion type that operate in the pulse-periodic mode has been
described. The injection of the electrode and dielectric materials occurs due to the combination of many processes
initiated by the high-voltage surface discharge. The guns with the dielectrics of (C2H4)n and (C2F4)n types have been
compared. Optical spectrograms of discharges for a (C2F4)n dielectric have been obtained. The radial and axial
spread of sprayed components that are the part of plasma guns has been specified and the composition of the
sediments deposited on the targets has been defined.
PACS: 52.50Dg, 52.80 Vp, 52.70Kz, 29.30Ep
INTRODUCTION
Plasma guns (PG), plasma emitters and plasma
injectors find wide application in different industrial and
science-intensive branches [1-6]. Different types of
injectors can be used, in particular multigap,
capillary, coaxial and those that are equipped
with gas puffing system, etc. [1-8]. The latest scientific
developments are devoted to the use of them as the
sources of plasma jets for space vehicles, and also to
spray materials onto different targets, to initiate ignition
of combustible mixtures in internal combustion engines,
detonation devices and charged particle accelerators [1-
12]. Plasma guns of a coaxial type with the surface
discharge have recently found wide application to
provide the material injection using anode, cathode and
dielectric. The breakdown development processes that
occur on the dielectric surface were described in detail
in scientific paper [13]. The discharge process is
accompanied by the formation of nonequilibrium low-
temperature plasma of a specified composition. The
power supply sources used for plasma guns are the
pulse current generators that are based on capacitive
energy accumulators that provide an appropriate high-
voltage discharge duration and energy. The geometric
configuration and the dimensions of the PG that is one
of the technological assemblies of the unit depend on
the discharge input energy, structure and the designation
of the equipment.
The particle flows in the plasma jet contain
electrons, excited ions and neutral atoms, molecules and
the clusters consisting of electrode atoms and molecules
and the plasma gun dielectric.
This paper gives consideration to the plasma guns
operating in the pulse-periodic mode that are the plasma
generators for plasma breakers and plasma filled diodes.
Radial and axial distribution of plasma jets in the
evacuated chamber and the composition of their
sediment on the targets have been described and the
spectral plasma composition has been established.
The purpose of this paper was to analyze the get
geometry, radial distribution of the components of
plasma jets created by the plasma guns of an erosion
type with different types of dielectrics in the evacuated
chamber and to study the plasma composition and
sediment morphology.
1. INITIAL EXPERIMENT SETTING UP
CONDITIONS
The acceleration technique specifies a number of
requirements for the created PGs in order to analyze
plasma jets whose task is to create initial plasma that
acts as a current breaker. These include:
• The possibility of the compact arrangement of
the components in appropriate sequence in the
accelerator chamber to provide uniform plasma
distribution;
• Providing the injection of atoms, molecules and
their compounds that possess the lowest ionization
potentials for the creation of the appropriate conduction
zone with a minimum energy input;
• Generating the current conduction plasma
domain with the density providing the best conditions
for the subsequent plasma disruption in plasma breakers
and plasma-filled diodes;
• Availability of the modular structure for the fast
replacement of individual functional elements, for
example the dielectric exposed to the electric surface
breakdown.
The plasma guns are arranged in the evacuated
chamber of the Plasma Gun Rig (PGR) of 1100 mm
long with the diameter of 600 mm [2] and the volume of
85 l. The PGR was designed to study physical processes
observed in small-size heavy current electron
accelerators that are based on the plasma current
switching and to detect the specific features of the
operation of the plasma guns of a different type using
different diagnostic tools.
Consideration was given to the following mode of
the PG operation: the emission surface of the used
dielectrics is 300 mm2. The power supply system and
the capacitor bank IK 100/0.4 allow for the generation
of pulses with the frequency of 0.1...1 Hz. The operating
current range is 15...20 kА; the voltage is 19...22 kV,
and the pulse duration is 2...4 µs. The average pulse
energy is 80 J. The PG initiates powerful high-voltage
pulsed discharges that advance on the dielectric surface
mailto:vinniden@gmail.com
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2022. №6(142) 61
in the vacuum chamber with the steam-oil pumping out
in vacuum of 5∙10-4...5∙10-5 Torr. The number of pulses
in each individual experiment varied in the range of 500
to 103. The operating resource of the guns could exceed
in this case more than 5000 discharges with no visible
damages of the dielectric surface and the gun structure.
Fig. 1. Structural diagram of the coaxial plasma gun of
an erosion type with the power supply unit where
1 ‒ the gun body, i.e. anode; 2 ‒ the vacuum sealing;
3 ‒ the central electrode, i.e. cathode; 4 ‒ the dielectric;
5 ‒ a high-voltage surface discharge; 6 ‒ is the anode in
the form of the chamber wall
The plasma guns of an erosion type and coaxial
geometry have been developed. Structurally the PGs can
be represented in the form of three units and each
performs a specific technological mission. The purpose
of the power supply unit is clear. The power supply unit
consists of the high-voltage power supply system, the
pulsed capacitor IK100/0.4, air-driven (pneumatically-
controlled) discharger, current inputs and the grounding
system. The vacuum unit provides the sealing of the
discharge section and appropriate vacuum conditions.
The injection unit has the electrode system in the form
of the rod that acts as the cathode and the chamber wall
that functions as the anode with the emission dielectric
surface (Fig. 1). General view of plasma guns outside
and inside the evacuated PGR is given in Fig. 2. The
chamber walls functions as the counter-electrode.
Fig. 2. General view of the PG,
where a ‒ outside and b ‒ inside the PGR
To explain the propagation of plasma jets we need to
have an idea of the arrangement of the force lines of
electric and magnetic fields in the active zone of plasma
guns during the surface discharge (Fig. 3) (consideration
is given to the idealized case).
The nature of the arrangement of force lines shows
that charged particles should follow the trajectories
specified by them and the Lorenz force, i.e. up and to
the side. In the case of the surface discharge, the normal
component of the electric field snuggles up to the
dielectric surface that results in addition to other things
in the local heating and the evaporation of the particles
of its material with the subsequent ionization and
creation of the plasma channel.
Fig. 3,b also shows that the spoke-shaped structures
are formed on the dielectric surface that runs from the
center to the periphery with a sufficient degree of the
symmetry. Black carbon sediment can be seen on the
dielectric surface and it was formed by the dielectric
material. It correlates with general ideas of the
distribution of force lines of the electric field shown in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Active zone of the plasma gun,
where a is E and H force lines of electric and magnetic
fields; 1 ‒ the central electrode, i.e. the cathode;
2 ‒ the PG casing, that is the anode;
3 ‒ the dielectric surface; 4 ‒ the domain of the triple
interface: dielectric, air and metal; b is the general view
of the surface of (C2H4)n dielectric after 1000 pulses;
c is a general view of the surface of (C2H4)n dielectric
prior to the breakdown
High-speed photography, in particular 1000 shots
per seconds confirms that after the surface discharge the
plasma jet propagates from the gun end to the chamber
center with the gradual expansion and a partial spread
along the adjacent chamber walls (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. General view of the plasma jet, the colored
temperature scale
According to the color scale the plasma jet
temperature is less than 4500 К.
62 ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2022. №6(142)
2. MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES
Proceeding from the experimental data obtained in
this paper and earlier in [2] we can give a general view
of the propagation of the components of plasma jets
(Fig. 5). The plasma jet sediment contours were defined
in space using titanium plates arranged in the evacuated
chamber (1, 2) with titanium targets arranged on them at
a different distance from the pulse gun end.
The titanium target was selected proceeding from
the non-availability of admixtures and alloyed dropes to
provide a relative purity of the experiment. The triple
interface domain that represents the transition zone
between the electrodes and the dielectrics and includes
inevitable vacuum gaps can have an effect on the
breakdown development character and the breakdown
voltage resulting in its increase. The given plates were
arranged at a distance of 30, 70, and 100 mm from the
gun end. The radial and axial spread of the plasma jet
components was defined using the imprints of plasma
jets formed on the plates during 1000 pulses.
(1, 2 are the target plates)
Fig. 5. The spread angles of the plasma jet components
Based on the analysis of the imprints obtained on
the targets (Fig. 6,a,b) we determined the spread angles
of the components of plasma jets that were equal to
(50±5)° at a distance of 30, 70, and 100 mm with the
imprint boundaries in the form of discoloration traces
with the diameter of (25±2), (63±3), and (80±3) mm,
accordingly.
The central region is relatively monotonous. In the
center, the area of this homogeneous chromaticity is
equal to 1200 mm2. The color pattern varies more
frequently approximately every 4 mm in the periphery
exceeding 25 mm along the radius.
Fig. 6,a,b shows that plasma jets create sufficiently
symmetric temperature field sectors and the main effect
falls on the central region with the radius of 0 to 25 mm.
The distribution of the colors for the targets
irradiated by the PG jets with fluoroplastic dielectric has
a similar pattern. However, the pattern is less
symmetric, the central region exposed to the jet action is
shifted from the center and its area is 2 or 3 times
smaller. It can be related to the type of the dielectric and
the character of the breakdown development on its
surface [13].
Fig. 6. General pattern of the plasma jet imprints on the
targets where PG imprints of a – (C2H4)n type;
b – PG imprints of a (C2F4)n type
Fig. 7. The dependences of the element distribution
along the target surface: a ‒ PG of a (C2H4)n type;
b ‒ plasma gun of a (C2F4)n type
Further to the periphery the titanium percentage
content is increased and it is well seen for the case (b)
with the fluoroplastic dielectric.
This color distribution can be indicative of that the
jet components have a similar energy level in the central
domain. The central flow can be denser and more
homogeneous. All the jet components have the energy
distribution diminishing from the center to the
periphery. In this case, the energy spread on the
periphery is increased because the color sectors are
changed more frequently.
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2022. №6(142) 63
Using the scanning electron microscopy, we defined
the weight content of the elements sprayed on the target
due to the erosion of the dielectric material and PG
electrodes. Fig. 7,a,b shows the dependences of the
distribution of the elements along the target surface.
Based on the analysis of the data obtained using the
scanning electron microscope we established that the
thickest spray of the material is observed in the central
region, up to 25mm for both types of the guns. The
amount of registered titanium in the center is somewhat
lower and it is indicative of the larger amount of
components brought in from the active zone of the PG.
Weight content of the elements in the central part of the
target for the both types of the guns
Element
Type of the plasma gun
Kapralon
(C2H4)n
Fluoroplast
(C2F4)n
Weight %
Ti 74.96 58.63
Cu 5.62 6.88
Fe 0.31 0.19
Al 0.3 0.32
O 18.83 20.40
F – 13.59
The analysis of the surface morphology of the target
specimens made of titanium shows that in comparison
to the original pure titanium specimen Fig. 8,a with
many pores the targets sprayed by the guns of (C2H4)n
and (C2F4)n types have 70 to 80 times smaller number
of the pores (some of them are marked with circles in
Fig. 8,a,b,c and the area of the remaining pores is on
average 10 times smaller in comparison to the original.
The erosion traces of the active zone of the guns in the
form of the drops of 5…30 µm consisting mainly of F,
Fe, Ni, Cr are marked by the squares. It is seen that the
same number of pulses and the same total energy input
result in the smaller number and smaller size of erosion
products deposited onto the target for the case with the
dielectric of an (C2H4)n type and it can be indicative of
its higher electroerosion resistance.
The method of weighing was used for the estimation
of the mass loss by the dielectric that was equal to 10 µg
per pulse for the PG of a (C2H4)n type and 12 µg per
pulse for the PG of a (C2F4)n type. The mass of
discharge electrodes was measured using the scales of a
VLP-200 type. In this case it was noted that the main
increment in mass is observed on central targets. The
1000 pulses in the central part of the given target with
the area of 100 mm2 provide the deposition of 300 µg of
the elements that are the components of the active zone
of the PG and it corresponds to 300 ng/pulse. A
maximum density of the sediment is peculiar for the
central portion of the target with the area of 600 mm2
(Fig. 9). It correlates with the color pattern given in
Fig. 6,b. The shift of the area with a maximum
increment in mass from the center corresponds to the
actual experimental pattern comparable with that given
in Fig. 6,b where the arrival of the jet is somewhat
shifted relatively the target center due to the drawbacks
of the alignment of the plasma gun-alignment system.
Fig. 8. Morphology of the titanium target treated by
plasma jets. Marker of 200 µm. where a is an initial
specimen; b is the PG with the C2H4)n dielectric;
c is the PG with the (C2F4)n dielectric
Fig. 9. An increase in mass along the target surface
after 1000 pulses
64 ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2022. №6(142)
The method of optical spectroscopy allowed us to
determine the plasma composition using the two-
channel spectrograph. Plasma jets contain the atomic
hydrogen, molecular carbon С2 and CN molecules and
also singly charged and doubly charged carbon ions and
hydrogen ions that are not detected using this spectral
method (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. The optic spectrogram of the plasma generated
by the PG of a (C2F4)n type at U = 19 kV
CONCLUSIONS
The (C2H4)n and (C2F4)n PG dischargers develop
according to the scenario for the dielectric surface
discharge. These have the form of the sliding discharge
and have the same spatial structure.
The plasma jet components structurally propagate in
the form of cone and it is confirmed by the availability
of the imprints of a different diameter on the targets
arranged at different distances along the axis.
Observations and video data are indicative of the
presence of the jets expanding to the center of the
chamber. These jets consist of the ions and excited
atoms and neutral gas.
This distribution can provide a good plasma filling
both for the central part of the chamber and the regions
adjacent to its walls. The temperature of the obtained
plasma jet is at least of 4500 K. The main deposition of
the PG material occurs in the target center on the area of
600…1200 mm2.
The experimental data show that the mass losses of
the (C2H4)n is equal to 90 µg/pulse. Whereas, the mass
loss of the (C2F4)n is achieved 120 µg/pulse.
The dielectric of a (C2H4)n type has a higher wear
resistance. It is confirmed by morphological studies.
The number of the fluorine-containing clusters was
respectively larger in comparison to that of the (C2H4)n
gun.
It can be indicative of the larger resource of the guns
made of caprolon in comparison to fluoiroplastic guns.
The spraying in the central region of the target plate
with the area of 100 mm2 is equal to 300 ng/pulse. For
the initial weight of the dielectric equal to 2…4 g the
component composition of the material deposited on the
targets consists mainly of Cu, Fe, O, F and it correlates
with the components of the active zone of plasma guns.
The hydrogen atoms as well as carbon atoms and ions
(С+, С++) were recorded.
It was established that the suggested PGs generate
plasma jets including ions, molecules and neutrals in
gaseous and metallic phases. The presence of the drop
phase in the form of the conglamarates of the erosion
products was also established. The size of
conglamarates is on average about 30 µm. These mainly
consist of Fe, Ni, Cr, and F.
The arrangement of the sufficient amount of the PGs
in the evacuated spaces can provide a reliable filling of
the central part of the chamber with the plasma.
The PG resource is at least 5000 pulses with no
failure and/or damages in pulsed-periodic modes with
the frequency within range of 0.1…1 Hz and working
voltages of up to 22 kV.
The block model of plasma guns of an erosion type
and coaxial geometry operating in the pulsed periodic
mode has been presented. Each block can be used by the
acceleration equipment of other research plants of the
same type. The PGR plant is the property of the NSC
KIPT. It can be used for the injection of the primary
plasma and also for plasma breakers and plasma-filled
diodes.
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https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yu-Protasov-2?_sg%5B0%5D=yS78tlVEQESwXdJYHqDiErRJh_pGlQAHM10Th1z-lLY3V3xzQ37dGLJPrDWdgYafccaDx9Q.MncdAhAMYJfnLE_FzQ3RxcDfJZZdG5LhzeyuwQZPKEWorMUdES6wxzIoj2Nl3Pe2VI3-R1UQ9bF5PfS-_cD6lA&_sg%5B1%5D=dpDDkBTQh1I-CM4V4Wr6d0okbs7Mioo5OFOKSxXYxvmXiIzr3SgfCem_X7nZU4pdqTUuDvk.ubBsO5UMIeTicQ80JLzRELmCcpwzfKqBR2MlYxv5znNL8QPE5HmIJubnetuSWkdVFjoDUPyyPNrOQ3KprsEwug
https://www.researchgate.net/journal/Instruments-and-Experimental-Techniques-1608-3180
https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/AF-Sorokin-2013752806?_sg%5B0%5D=NeYMR0E-X3unvUtS010GEZ3BTDzJ7jMXF8XWLgM16et0f770mGreFK537-QcNO1LTp7Ihgk.HN05rv6r6zuAEtNLum6NVu5EcyY_xnEQ0S8pQpsLVgjVtzQD-FdouS5UhIYbBHfFeMgPHi7MtXrHFAZwyeEvDw&_sg%5B1%5D=ttQEzWK-yIUcKlPAomt_onCEV9L1VdnXLCFeRiEvVGx3QjG5MGsbWa1M2AZ39Teq00ZcBhQ.hXMtQtqyHhY0om198eE4qHr-q-VYzb0ETZL_Q-4Kh3btRWvevPbGZDDrf1u_-WOuRDDEG9AHDs3XxQFolWVIrg
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ПЛАЗМОВІ ГАРМАТИ ЕРОЗІЙНОГО ТИПУ З ІМПУЛЬСНО-ПЕРІОДИЧНОЮ
ГАЗОМЕТАЛЕВОЮ ІНЖЕКЦІЄЮ
Д.В. Вінніков, В.В. Катречко, В.Б. Юферов, В.І. Ткачьов
Описано влаштування плазмових гармат ерозійного типу модульної конструкції, що працюють у
імпульсно-періодичному режимі. Інжекція матеріалу електродів та діелектрика відбуваються за рахунок
комплексу процесів при високовольтному поверхневому розряді. Проведено порівняння гармат з
діелектриками (C2H4)n- та (C2F4)n-типу. Отримано оптичні спектрограми розрядів для (C2F4)n-діелектрика.
Визначено радіальний та осьовий розліт розпилених компонентів, що входять до складу плазмових гармат.
Визначено склад осаду на мішені.
https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/C-W-Mendel-5540075?_sg%5B0%5D=6jzrPHtBFuL1mtCTOgcsKC8DEr0h-N1xKYRIzk_7S8YYDC3aEGH4-DRsx_lws_lxpcQ-Yko.YBm5FJohRI911XRbIwyiizwj38oI7tJuEfY7jWmh5ll5OyjEwI7vkMEHg7vwpIjZs9COgf2tmu3uaEcTbhf7AQ&_sg%5B1%5D=-G81Q_zL5bWgkSwC2nXPux92jWFgcRLZrCQ7Fr1pB0E0o5tI3sC-fpGLH8HG9kWkOv2ofU8.fRdxV-whfxPEKuBNzsf3nifEewTEFva6mEbkmXLntcqQso1kBNU79PKCw2Io6qwC9vIHwR7r65Vo-UMykKutnA
https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/D-M-Zagar-33797818?_sg%5B0%5D=6jzrPHtBFuL1mtCTOgcsKC8DEr0h-N1xKYRIzk_7S8YYDC3aEGH4-DRsx_lws_lxpcQ-Yko.YBm5FJohRI911XRbIwyiizwj38oI7tJuEfY7jWmh5ll5OyjEwI7vkMEHg7vwpIjZs9COgf2tmu3uaEcTbhf7AQ&_sg%5B1%5D=-G81Q_zL5bWgkSwC2nXPux92jWFgcRLZrCQ7Fr1pB0E0o5tI3sC-fpGLH8HG9kWkOv2ofU8.fRdxV-whfxPEKuBNzsf3nifEewTEFva6mEbkmXLntcqQso1kBNU79PKCw2Io6qwC9vIHwR7r65Vo-UMykKutnA
https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/G-S-Mills-75148448?_sg%5B0%5D=6jzrPHtBFuL1mtCTOgcsKC8DEr0h-N1xKYRIzk_7S8YYDC3aEGH4-DRsx_lws_lxpcQ-Yko.YBm5FJohRI911XRbIwyiizwj38oI7tJuEfY7jWmh5ll5OyjEwI7vkMEHg7vwpIjZs9COgf2tmu3uaEcTbhf7AQ&_sg%5B1%5D=-G81Q_zL5bWgkSwC2nXPux92jWFgcRLZrCQ7Fr1pB0E0o5tI3sC-fpGLH8HG9kWkOv2ofU8.fRdxV-whfxPEKuBNzsf3nifEewTEFva6mEbkmXLntcqQso1kBNU79PKCw2Io6qwC9vIHwR7r65Vo-UMykKutnA
https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/S-A-Goldstein-2110593454
https://www.researchgate.net/journal/The-Review-of-scientific-instruments-1089-7623
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