Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study
The aim of this paper is to examine the correlation between in vitro MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel invasion in 42 different human cancer cell lines (selected on the basis of organ malignancies) treated with a nutrient mixture (NM).
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Інститут експериментальної патології, онкології і радіобіології ім. Р.Є. Кавецького НАН України
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irk-123456789-323032013-02-13T03:30:57Z Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study Roomi, M.W. Monterrey, J.C. Kalinovsky, T. Rath, M. Niedzwiecki, A. Original contributions The aim of this paper is to examine the correlation between in vitro MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel invasion in 42 different human cancer cell lines (selected on the basis of organ malignancies) treated with a nutrient mixture (NM). 2010 Article Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study / M.W. Roomi, J.C. Monterrey, T. Kalinovsky, M. Rath, A. Niedzwiecki // Experimental Oncology. — 2010. — Т. 32, № 4. — С. 243–248. — Біліогр.: 23 назв. — англ. 1812-9269 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/32303 en Experimental Oncology Інститут експериментальної патології, онкології і радіобіології ім. Р.Є. Кавецького НАН України |
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Original contributions Original contributions Roomi, M.W. Monterrey, J.C. Kalinovsky, T. Rath, M. Niedzwiecki, A. Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study Experimental Oncology |
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The aim of this paper is to examine the correlation between in vitro MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel invasion in 42 different human cancer cell lines (selected on the basis of organ malignancies) treated with a nutrient mixture (NM). |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Roomi, M.W. Monterrey, J.C. Kalinovsky, T. Rath, M. Niedzwiecki, A. |
| author_facet |
Roomi, M.W. Monterrey, J.C. Kalinovsky, T. Rath, M. Niedzwiecki, A. |
| author_sort |
Roomi, M.W. |
| title |
Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study |
| title_short |
Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study |
| title_full |
Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study |
| title_fullStr |
Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study |
| title_sort |
inhibition of invasion and mmps by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study |
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Інститут експериментальної патології, онкології і радіобіології ім. Р.Є. Кавецького НАН України |
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2010 |
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Original contributions |
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http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/32303 |
| citation_txt |
Inhibition of invasion and MMPs by a nutrient mixture in human cancer cell lines: a correlation study / M.W. Roomi, J.C. Monterrey, T. Kalinovsky, M. Rath, A. Niedzwiecki // Experimental Oncology. — 2010. — Т. 32, № 4. — С. 243–248. — Біліогр.: 23 назв. — англ. |
| series |
Experimental Oncology |
| work_keys_str_mv |
AT roomimw inhibitionofinvasionandmmpsbyanutrientmixtureinhumancancercelllinesacorrelationstudy AT monterreyjc inhibitionofinvasionandmmpsbyanutrientmixtureinhumancancercelllinesacorrelationstudy AT kalinovskyt inhibitionofinvasionandmmpsbyanutrientmixtureinhumancancercelllinesacorrelationstudy AT rathm inhibitionofinvasionandmmpsbyanutrientmixtureinhumancancercelllinesacorrelationstudy AT niedzwieckia inhibitionofinvasionandmmpsbyanutrientmixtureinhumancancercelllinesacorrelationstudy |
| first_indexed |
2025-07-03T12:49:06Z |
| last_indexed |
2025-07-03T12:49:06Z |
| _version_ |
1836630091801559040 |
| fulltext |
Experimental Oncology 32, 243–248, 2010 (December) 243
Metastasis is responsible for a majority of cancer-
related deaths, secondary to tumor progression to critical
organs or to side effects resulting from therapeutic attempts
at controlling tumor growth and spread. The progressive
steps of the metastasis process include detachment of
cancer cells from the primary tumor, disruption of the base-
ment membrane, invasion into the surrounding stroma,
cancer cell entry into and transport through the vascular
or lymphatic system to distal sites such as the liver, lungs,
and brain, and extravasation, tumor cell proliferation and
angiogenesis at distal sites [1–5]. A critical event in tumor
cell invasion is degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM),
a complex network of extracellular macromolecules such
as collagen, proteoglycans, fibronectin, laminin, and many
other glycoproteins that acts as a barrier to the spread
of cancer cells to distal sites by restricting tumor growth
and invasion [6–8]. A special group of proteases, matrix
metalloproteinases (MMPs), a family of zinc and calcium-
dependent proteolytic enzymes are crucial to invasion,
migration, metastasis, and tumor genesis [8–10].
Over twenty different MMPs act on a broad spectrum
of substrates, including collagen type I, II, III, IV, and
stromyelin [11]. Among the many MMPs that have been
identified, gelatinases, especially MMP-2 (gelatinase A)
and MMP-9 (gelatinase B), are thought to a play a key
role in degradation of type IV collagen and gelatin, the
two main components of ECM. MMP-2 and MMP-9 are
secreted in their latent zymogenic form, 72kDa and
92kDa, respectively. MMP-2 and MMP-9 are cleaved
by other MMPs or proteases to yield the activated forms
of 68kDa, 58kDa, and 54kDa for MMP-2, and 84kDa for
MMP-9. Increased expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 is
reported in many human tumors, including ovarian,
breast and prostate tumors, and melanoma [12–14]. A
significant association has been reported between tumor
aggression and increased levels of MMP-2 and MMP-
9 in many experimental and clinical studies [8, 9, 15–19].
The aim of this study was to examine the relation-
ship between Matrigel invasion and MMP-2 and MMP-
9 secretion in human cancer cell lines exhibiting various
patterns of MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression treated with
various doses of NM. Since expression of MMPs is highly
regulated by cytokines and signal transduction pathways,
including those activated by phorbol 12-myristate 13-ac-
etate (PMA), the effect of PMA on MMP-2 and MMP-
9 expression in several human cancer lines was assessed.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Cancer cell lines and reagents. Forty-two dif-
ferent cancer cell lines were selected based on dif-
ferent patterns of MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression,
and included carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias
(Table 1). The cancer cell lines and their recommended
media were purchased from ATCC (Manassas, VA,
USA). Penicillin, streptomycin, PMA, and fetal bovine
serum (FBS) were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO,
USA). All other reagents used were of high purity and
were obtained from Sigma, unless otherwise indicated.
INHIBITION OF INVASION AND MMPS BY A NUTRIENT MIXTURE
IN HUMAN CANCER CELL LINES: A CORRELATION STUDY
M.W. Roomi, J.C. Monterrey, T. Kalinovsky, M. Rath, A. Niedzwiecki *
Dr. Rath Research Institute, 1260 Memorex Drive, Santa Clara, CA 95050, USA
Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 secretion is elevated in various human cancers and their elevated expression has been
associated with poor prognosis due to associated increased cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Aim: To examine the correlation
between in vitro MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel invasion in 42 different human cancer cell lines (selected on the basis
of organ malignancies) treated with a nutrient mixture (NM). Materials and Methods: The cells were cultured in their recommended
media supplemented with 10% FBS and antibiotics in 24-well tissue culture plates. At near confluence, the cells were treated with
NM dissolved in media at 0, 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 μg/mL in triplicate. Parallel sets of cultures were also treated with phor-
bol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) 100 ng/mL for induction of enzymes. After 24 h the media were collected and MMP-2 and
MMP-9 levels were assayed by gelatinase zymography. Invasion studies were conducted using Matrigel in 24-well plates. Results:
Correlation of pooled data from different cancer cell line groups demonstrated dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 and -9 and
Matrigel invasion with NM treatment and significant negative correlation between MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels and Matrigel inva-
sion. Pooled data of cell lines expressing only MMP-2 and resistance to PMA induction of MMP-9 showed significant negative
correlation (r = -0.77, p = 0.003) between MMP-2 secretion and inhibition of invasion through Matrigel. Cell lines expressing only
MMP-9, showed significant negative correlation (r = -0.726, p = 0.003) between MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel invasion. Pooled
data of cell lines expressing MMP-2 and MMP-9 demonstrated significant negative correlation (r = -0.821, p < 0.0001) between
MMP-9 secretion and inhibition of invasion through Matrigel. Pooled data of cancer cell lines expressing no basal MMP- 9 se-
cretion demonstrated significant negative correlation (r = -0.686, p < 0.0001) between PMA-induced MMP-9 secretion and
inhibition of invasion through Matrigel. Conclusions: In conclusion, regardless of MMP-2 and MMP-9 patterns of expression,
MMP modulation by NM was found to be significantly correlated with NM modulation of Matrigel invasion of these cell lines.
Key Words: human cancer cells, nutrient mixture, correlation of invasion with MMPs.
Received: October 17, 2010.
*Correspondence: Fax: 408–567–5030;
E-mail: author@drrath.com
Abbreviations used: ECM — extracellular matrix; MMP — matrix
metalloproteinase; NM — nutrient mixture; PMA — phorbol 12-my-
ristate 13-acetate.
Exp Oncol 2010
32, 4, 243–248
244 Experimental Oncology 32, 243–248, 2010 (December)
Table 1. List of cancer cell lines classified by organ malignancy
Male Cancer
Prostate
PC-3
LNCAP
DU-145
22RV1
Testis
NTER-2
Female Cancer
Breast
MDA-MB-231
MCF-7
Cervix
HeLa
DoTc2–4510
Ovarian
SK-OV-3
Uterine
SK-UT-1
Gastrointes tinal
Liver
Hep-G2
Sk-Hep-1
Pancreas
MiaPaCa-1
Colon
HCT-116
Lung and Me-
sothelioma
Lung
A-549
Calu-3
Mesothelioma
MSTO-211H
Glioma
A-172
T-98
LN-18
Head & Neck
Laryngopharynx
FaDu
Tongue
SCC-25
Thyroid
SW579
Pediatric Sar-
coma
Osteosarcoma
U2OS
MMNG
Ewing’s Sarcoma
SK-ES-1
Rhabdomyosar-
coma
RD (embryonic)
Neuroblastoma
SK-N-MC
Retinoblastoma
Y-79
Adult Sarcoma
Fibrosarcoma
HT-1080
Liposarcoma
SW872
Synovial sarcoma
SW982
Chondrosarcoma
SW1353
Leukemia
HL-60
Jurkat
Raji
Other Cancers
Bladder
T-24
Melanoma
A-2058
Kidney
786–0
Composition of the nutrient mixture. The nutrient
mixture (NM) was composed of the following in the ratio
indicated: Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid and as Mg, Ca,
and palmitate ascorbate) 700 mg; L-lysine 1000 mg;
L-proline 750 mg; L-arginine 500 mg; N-acetyl cysteine
200 mg; standardized green tea extract (derived from
green tea leaves, was obtained from US Pharma Lab; the
certificate of analysis indicated the following characteris-
tics: total polyphenol 80%, catechins 60%, epigallocat-
echin gallate (EGCG) 35%, and caffeine 1.0%); 1000 mg;
selenium 30μg; copper 2 mg; manganese 1 mg.
Cell culture. Cancer cell lines were grown in recom-
mended media, supplemented with 10% FBS, penicillin
(100 units/mL), and streptomycin (100 g/mL) in 24-well
tissue culture plates (Coster, Cambridge, MA, USA). The
cells were plated at a density 1 x 105 cells/mL and grown
to confluency in a humidified atmosphere at 5% CO2 at
37 C. Serum-supplemented media were removed and
the cell monolayer was washed once with PBS and with
the recommended serum-free medium. Cells were
incubated with 1 ml of media at 37 C in a tissue culture
incubator equilibrated with 95% air and 5% CO2. At near
confluence, the cells were treated with the nutrient mix-
ture, dissolved in media and tested at 0, 10, 50, 100, 500,
and 1000 μg/ml in triplicate at each dose. Parallel sets of
cultures were treated with PMA (100 ng/mL) for induction
of MMP-9. Control and PMA treatments were done in
triplicates. The plates were then returned to the incuba-
tor. The conditioned media were collected separately,
pooled, and centrifuged at 4 0C for 10 min at 3000 rpm
to remove cells and cell debris. The supernatant was
collected and used for gelatinase zymography, a highly
sensitive assay of gelatinolytic enzymatic activity able to
detect both pro and active forms of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
Gelatinase zymography. Gelatinase zymography
was performed in 10% NOVEX Pre-Cast SDS Poly-
acrylamide Gel (Invitrogen Corporation) in the pres-
ence of 0.1% gelatin under non-reducing conditions.
Culture media (20 L) were mixed with sample buffer
and loaded for SDS-PAGE with tris glycine SDS buffer
as suggested by the manufacturer (Novex). Samples
were not boiled before electrophoresis. Following elec-
trophoresis the gels were washed twice in 2.5% Triton
X-100 for 30 min at room temperature to remove SDS.
The gels were then incubated at 37 C overnight in
substrate buffer containing 50 mM Tris-HCl and 10 mM
CaCl2 at pH 8.0 and stained with 0.5% Coomassie
Blue R250 in 50% methanol and 10% glacial acetic
acid for 30 min and destained. Upon renaturation of
the enzyme, the gelatinases digest the gelatin in the
gel and give clear bands against an intensely stained
background. Protein standards were run concurrently
and approximate molecular weights were determined
by plotting the relative mobilities of known proteins.
Gelatinase zymograms were scanned using Ca-
noScan 9950F Canon scanner at 300 dpi. The inten-
sity of the bands was evaluated using the pixel-based
densitometer program Un-Scan-It, Version 5.1, 32-bit,
by Silk Scientific Corporation (P.O. Box 533, Orem, UT
84059, USA), at a resolution of 1 Scanner Unit (1/100 of
an inch for an image that was scanned at 100 dpi). The
pixel densitometer calculates the optical density of
each pixel (values 0 to 255) using the darkly stained
background of the gel as a pixel value of 0. A logarithmic
optical density scale was used since the optical density
of films and gels is logarithmically proportional to the
concentration. The pixel densitometer sums the opti-
cal density of each pixel to give a band’s density. In all
graphs, band densities were reported as percentages of
the sums of all pixels in a given lane (treatment) of a gel.
Matrigel invasion. Invasion studies were conducted
using Matrigel (Becton Dickinson) inserts in 24-well
plates. Suspended in medium, cancer cells were supple-
mented with nutrients, as specified in the design of the
experiment and seeded on the insert in the well. Thus
both the medium on the insert and in the well contained
the same supplements. The plates with the inserts were
then incubated in a culture incubator equilibrated with
95% air and 5% CO2 for 24 h. After incubation, the media
from the wells were withdrawn. The cells on the upper
surface of the inserts were gently scrubbed away with
cotton swabs. The cells that had penetrated the Matrigel
membrane and migrated onto the lower surface of the
Matrigel were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and
visually counted under the microscope.
Statistics. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was
determined between pooled Matrigel invasion and
MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression of cell groups using
MedCalc Software (Mariakerke, Belgium).
RESULTS
Cell lines expressing only MMP-2 and resis-
tant to PMA induction of MMP-9. Ovarian cancer
SK-OV-3, retinoblastoma Y-79, and thyroid carcinoma
SW-579 exhibited only MMP-2 secretion and resis-
tance to PMA stimulation of MMP-9. NM inhibited
Matrigel invasion in a dose-dependent manner in
thyroid and ovarian cancer cells with 100% inhibition
of thyroid cancer cells at NM 500 μg/mL and ovarian
cancer cells at 1000 μg/mL Retinoblastoma cells did
not demonstrate invasion through Matrigel. Pooled
data of this group of cancer cell lines demonstrated
Experimental Oncology 32, 243–248, 2010 (December) 245
significant negative correlation (r = -0.77, p = 0.0003)
between relative MMP-2 expression and inhibition of
invasion through Matrigel, as shown in Fig. 1.
n=12
r = 0.77
p=0.0003
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Invasion Inhibition
Re
la
tiv
e
M
M
P-
2
Ex
pr
es
si
on
Fig. 1. Correlation between MMP-2 secretion and Matrigel inva-
sion in cancer cells expressing MMP-2 only
Cell lines expressing only MMP-9. Burkitt’s
lymphoma (Raji), cervical cancer (DoTc2–4510) and
pancreatic cancer (MiaPaCa-1) cells showed dose-
dependent inhibition of invasion through Matrigel with
NM treatment: 100% inhibition was seen in Burkitt’s
lymphoma, pancreatic cancer, and in cervical cancer
at 100, 500, and 1000 μg/mL NM, respectively. Basal
and PMA-induced MMP-9 secretion was inhibited by
NM in all three cell lines with total block of MMP-9 se-
cretion in Burkitt’s lymphoma and pancreatic cancer
at 1000 μg/mL and of cervical cancer cell secretion at
500 μg/mL. Pooled data of this group of cancer cell
lines demonstrated significant negative correlation
(r = -0.726, p = 0.003) between MMP-9 secretion
and inhibition of invasion through Matrigel, as shown
in Fig. 2.
n=14
r = -0.726
p=0.003
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Invasion Inhibition
Re
la
tiv
e
M
M
P-
9
Ex
pr
es
si
on
Fig. 2. Correlation between MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel inva-
sion in cancer cells expressing MMP-9 only
Cell lines expressing MMP-2 and MMP-9
Basal MMP-2 secretion with slight (10–20%) in-
duction of MMP-9 by PMA (Group A): glioblastoma
(A-172), testis carcinoma.
Normal glioblastoma showed dose-dependent
inhibition of Matrigel invasion and MMP-2 by NM
with 100% block at 1000 μg/mL. PMA-treated glio-
blastoma cells showed dose-dependent inhibition of
MMP- 2 and MMP-9 by NM, with 100% block of both
MMPs at 500 μg/mL NM.
Basal MMP-2 secretion with moderate (40–50%)
induction of MMP-9 (Group B): bladder carcinoma,
cervical cancer (HeLa), hepatocellular carcinoma
(Hep-G2), neuroblastoma, osteosarcoma (MNNG).
Normal cervical cancer cells showed dose-de-
pendent inhibition of MMP-2 with complete block of
MMP-2 at 500 μg/mL NM. Matrigel invasion was inhib-
ited in a dose-dependent manner with total inhibition
at 500 μg/mL NM. PMA-treated HeLa cells showed
dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by
NM, with 100% block of MMP-2 and -9 at 1000 μg/ml
and 500 μg/mL NM, respectively.
Basal MMP-2 secretion with profound (70–90%)
induction of MMP-9 by PMA (Group C): head and neck
carcinoma (FaDu), leukemia (HL-60), lung cancer
(A-549).
Normal FaDu cells showed dose-dependent inhibition
of MMP-2 with complete block of MMP-2 at 500 μg/mL
NM. Matrigel invasion was inhibited in a dose-dependent
manner with total inhibition at 500 μg/mL NM. PMA-treat-
ed FaDu cells showed dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-
2 and MMP-9 by NM, with 100% block of MMP- 2 and -9 at
1000 μg/ml and 500 μg/mL NM, respectively.
Basal MMP-2 greater than basal MMP–9 secretion
with significant induction of MMP-9 by PMA (Group D):
melanoma (A-2058), renal adenocarcinoma (786-0)
mesothelioma (MSTO-211H), chondrosarcoma (W1353),
osteosarcoma (U2-OS), rhabdomyosarcoma (RD), sy-
novial sarcoma (SW982) prostate cancer (PC-3).
Fig. 3 and 4 provide the zymograms and invasion
photomicrographs for melanoma cell line A-2058, a
representative cell line exhibiting basal MMP-2 greater
than basal MMP–9 secretion with significant induction
of MMP-9 by PMA. Normal melanoma cells showed
dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 with complete
block of MMP-2 at 1000 μg/mL NM. Matrigel invasion
was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner with total
inhibition at 500 μg/mL NM. PMA-treated melanoma
cells showed dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 and
MMP-9 by NM, with 100% block of MMP-2 and -9 at
1000 μg/ml and 500 μg/mL NM, respectively.
MMP-9
MMP-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a b
Fig. 3. Effect of NM on melanoma cells: gelatinase zymography:
a, normal melanoma cells, legend: 1 — markers, 2 — control,
3–7 -10, 50, 100, 500, 1000 g/mL NM; b, PMA (100 ng/mL)-
treated melanoma cells, legend: 1 — markers, 2 — control
(100 ng/mL PMA), 3–7: 100 ng/mL PMA and 10, 50, 100, 500,
1000 g/mL NM
Basal MMP-2 and MMP-9 equally expressed with
PMA-induction of MMP-9 (Group E): fibrosarcoma
(HT-1080), hepatocellular carcinoma (SK-Hep-1),
tongue carcinoma (SCC-25), liposarcoma (SW872).
Normal liposarcoma cells showed dose-dependent
inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion with com-
plete block of MMP-2 at 1000 μg/mL NM and MMP- 9 at
500 μg/mL NM. PMA-treated liposarcoma cells showed
dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by
NM, with 100% block of MMP-2 and -9 at 500 μg/ml
and 1000 μg/mL NM, respectively. Matrigel invasion was
inhibited in a dose-dependent manner with total inhibition
at 1000 μg/mL NM.
246 Experimental Oncology 32, 243–248, 2010 (December)
Pooled data of this group of cancer cell lines
demonstrated significant negative correlation (r =
-0.821, p < 0.0001) between MMP-9 secretion and in-
hibition of invasion through Matrigel, as shown in Fig. 5.
MMP-9:
n= 66
r = 0.821
p<.0001
MMP-2:
n=120
r = 0.826
p<.0001
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
2
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Invasion Inhibition
Re
la
tiv
e
M
M
P
Ex
pr
es
si
on
MMP-9
MMP-2
Fig. 5. Correlation between MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion and
Matrigel invasion in cancer cells expressing both MMP-2 and MMP-9
Cell lines expressing no basal MMP-2 and
MMP-9. Breast cancer (MCF-7) and (MDA-MB-231),
T-cell leukemia (Jurkat), prostate cancer (Du-145), and
uterine leiomyosarcoma (SK-UT-1) cell lines expressed
no basal MMP-2, and MMP-9 only with PMA induction.
Colon cancer (HCT-116) and prostate adenocarcinoma
(LNCaP) expressed neither MMP-2 nor MMP-9 even
with PMA induction. The quantitative results of the
effects of NM on Matrigel invasion of these cell lines
are shown in Table 2 and the densitometric analyses
of the effect of NM on MMP-9 secretion in normal and
PMA-treated cells in this category are shown in Table
3. Normal MDA-MB-231 cells showed no MMP-2 nor
MMP-9 expression. PMA-treated breast cancer cells
showed dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-9 by NM,
with 100% block at 50 μg/mL NM. Matrigel invasion
was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner with total
inhibition at 500 μg/mL NM.
Table 2. Effect of nutrient mixture on inhibition of Matrigel invasion by
cancer cell lines expressing neither MMP-2 nor MMP-9
Nutrient mixture treatment
(μg/mL)
0 10 50 100 500 1000
Breast Cancer (MCF-7) 0% 58% 95% 100% 100% 100%
Breast Cancer (MDA-MB-231) 0% 25% 75% 98% 100% 100%
T-cell Leukemia (Jurkat) 0% 0% 10% 15% 72% 100%
Prostate Cancer (Du-145) 0% 56% 56% 66% 100% 100%
Uterine Leiomyosarcoma (SK-UT-1) 0% 0% 50% 70% 100% 100%
Colon Cancer (HCT-116) 0% 54% 66% 76% 76% 100%
Prostate (LNCaP) 0% 37% 59% 91% 91% 100%
Table 3. Effect of nutrient mixture on MMP-9 expression after PMA treat-
ment of cells that express neither MMP-2 nor MMP-9
Group C
Nutrient mixture treatment
(μg/mL)
0 10 50 100 500 1000
Breast Cancer (MCF-7) 100% 100% 80% 10% 2% 1%
Breast Cancer (MDA-MB-231) 100% 14% 0% 0% 0% 0%
T-cell Leukemia (Jurkat) 100% 121% 106% 88% 0% 0%
Prostate Cancer (Du-145) 100% 97% 42% 10% 0% 0%
Uterine Leiomyosarcoma (SK-UT-1) 100% 90% 73% 13% 3% 0%
Colon Cancer (HCT-116) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Prostate Adenocarcinoma (LNCaP) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Lung Carcinoma (Calu-3) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Prostate Cancer (22RV1) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Pooled data of this group of cancer cell lines de-
monstrated significant negative correlation (r = -0.686,
p < 0.0001) between MMP-9 secretion and inhibition
of invasion through Matrigel, as shown in Fig. 6.
a
b
c
e
d
Fig. 4. Effect of NM on melanoma cells: Matrigel invasion pho-
tomicrographs: a, control; b, 10 g/mL NM; c, 50 g/mL NM; d,
100 g/mL NM; e, 500 g/mL NM
Experimental Oncology 32, 243–248, 2010 (December) 247
n = 42
r = 0.686
p< 0.0001
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Invasion Inhibition
Re
la
tiv
e
M
M
P-
9
(P
M
A)
E
xp
re
ss
io
n
Fig. 6. Correlation between MMP-9 secretion and Matrigel inva-
sion in cancer cells expressing MMP-9 only with PMA treatment
DISCUSSION
Numerous clinical and experimental studies have
documented the increased levels of MMPs, especially
MMP-2 and MMP-9 with cancer progression. Although
the pattern of MMP expression can vary from tumor to
tumor, specific MMPs increase in particular organ-related
cancers. Recent clinical studies have focused on develop-
ing potential anti-neoplastic agents for specific cancers.
Due to the diagnostic and prognostic value of MMP-
2 and MMP-9 expression in cancers, specific focus has
been directed to these MMPs. In part, this is due to the
fact that MMP-2 and MMP-9 are type IV collagenases, and
thus can degrade the major structural protein of ECM and
basement membrane. Several studies have documented
enhanced expression of these MMPs with tumor progres-
sion and metastasis [8, 10, 15–19].
Most MMPs appear to be secreted in inactive pro-
forms which are then activated extracellulary by either
the plasminogen cascade system or by other members
of the MMP family, such as MT-MMPs [11]. In this
study, PMA was used as a model agent to stimulate
the expression of MMP-9 by the cytokine pathway.
Different cancers demonstrate distinct patterns of
MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression. For example, ovarian
cancer, has been reported to exhibit elevated expres-
sion of MMP-9 compared to breast and bladder cancer
[20]. Increased levels of MMP-2 expression have been
reported in colon, pancreas, prostate, and skin cancer
[12]. In our study, MMP-2 was constitutively expressed
by most cell lines, whereas MMP-9 levels varied and usu-
ally could be induced by PMA. Interestingly, the prostate
cancer cell lines LNCAP and colon cancer cell line HCT-
116 showed no MMP-2 or MMP-9 activity in either control
or stimulated media. However, Matrigel invasion of these
cell lines was evident as well as the dose-dependent
inhibition of their invasion with NM treatment. It has been
reported that co-culturing cancer cells that express no
MMPs with stromal cells, a condition more representative
of the clinical picture, leads to induction of MMPs. In vitro
co-culture experiments of normal fibroblasts with tumor
cell lines such as prostate, breast, colon, lung, and mela-
noma, have demonstrated high expressions of MMP-2
and MMP-9 otherwise not seen; neither fibroblasts nor
these cancer cell lines express MMP-2 and MMP-9 at
substantial levels when monocultured [21–23]. These
results suggest that co-culturing cancer cells with normal
fibroblasts triggers alteration of the fibroblasts to support
further cancer cell growth by secretion of MMPs, leading
to ECM degradation, attachment to ECM components,
and cellular motility.
Analysis of dose-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 and
-9 by NM by the various cancer cell lines tested from all
groups showed a significant correlation with NM dose-
dependent inhibition of Matrigel invasion by these cell
lines. The cell lines most sensitive to inhibition of Matri-
gel invasion by NM were osteosarcoma (U2OS) and
Burkitt’s Lymphoma (Raji), which exhibited complete
blockage of invasion at 100 μg/mL, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Invasion inhibition effect of nutrient mixture: cell lines ordered
according to nutrient mixture sensitivity
Nutrient mixture treatment
(μg/mL)
0 10 50 100 500 1000
Liposarcoma 0% 0% 32% 44% 75% 100%
Synovial Sarcoma 0% 9% 28% 38% 79% 100%
Tongue Carcinoma 0% 0% 38% 40% 80% 100%
Hepatocellular Carcinoma (SK-Hep-1) 0% 42% 46% 53% 83% 100%
Chondrosarcoma 0% 0% 37% 68% 88% 100%
Leukemia (HL-60) 0% 0% 0% 15% 89% 100%
Ovarian Cancer 0% 32% 40% 59% 90% 100%
Glioblastoma (A-172) 0% 0% 23% 23% 93% 100%
Hepatocellular Carcinoma (Hep-G2) 0% 4% 4% 27% 97% 100%
Cervical Cancer (DoTc2-4510) 0% 10% 19% 86% 97% 100%
Mesothelioma (MSTO-211H) 0% 0% 27% 36% 100% 100%
Fibrosarcoma (HT-1080) 0% 40% 40% 50% 100% 100%
Lung Cancer (A-549) 0% 43% 43% 64% 100% 100%
Thyroid Carcinoma 0% 0% 42% 65% 100% 100%
Renal adenocarcinoma 0% 45% -- 68% 100% 100%
Cervical Cancer (HeLa) 0% 28% 52% 76% 100% 100%
Bladder Carcinoma 0% 36% 60% 81% 100% 100%
Testis Carcinoma 0% 32% 85% 85% 100% 100%
Head & Neck Carcinoma (FaDu) 0% 25% 24% 87% 100% 100%
Pancreas 0% 66% 66% 87% 100% 100%
Rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) 0% 75% 80% 92% 100% 100%
Melanoma 0% 30% 44% 95% 100% 100%
Osteosarcoma (MNNG) 0% 87% 97% 98% 100% 100%
Osteosarcoma (U2-OS) 0% 0% 74% 100% 100% 100%
Burkitt Lymphoma (Raji) 0% 63% 86% 100% 100% 100%
Thus, findings are significant as they indicate the
importance of MMP secretion to achieve control of can-
cer invasion and metastasis. Those cell lines exhibiting
moderate sensitivity (achieving total blockage at 500 μg/
mL NM) included thyroid cancer, FaDu, HeLa, melanoma,
testes, bladder, fibrosarcoma HT1080, lung cancer and
renal adenosarcoma.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the results clearly indicate that regard-
less of the MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression patterns
of various malignancies, MMP expression modulation
by NM is significantly correlated to NM modulation of
Matrigel invasion of these cell lines. These findings are
important as they demonstrate the major role of MMP-
2 and –9 in invasion and thus in potential metastasis
by various cancer cell line groups, Furthermore, these
results demonstrate the efficacy of the non-toxic NM in
inhibiting MMPs and Matrigel invasion in vitro in cells from
various malignancies and thus the potential of the thera-
peutic use of NM in treatment of various malignancies.
248 Experimental Oncology 32, 243–248, 2010 (December)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research study was funded by Dr. Rath Health
Foundation (Plantation, Florida, USA) a non-profit
organization.
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